| HOME | HELP | FEEDBACK | SUBSCRIPTIONS | ARCHIVE | SEARCH | TABLE OF CONTENTS |
|
|
|
|||||||
|
|||||||||
J Thorac Cardiovasc Surg 1994;107:1020-1029
© 1994 Mosby, Inc.
CARDIOPULMONARY BYPASS, |
Rochester, Minn.
From the Department of Anesthesiology and the Section of Cardiothoracic Surgery—Department of Surgery, Mayo Clinic, Rochester, Minn.
Address for reprints: David J. Cook, MD, Department of Anesthesiology, Mayo Clinic, 200 First St. SW, Rochester, MN 55905.
Abstract
Recent reports have described cerebral venous oxygen desaturation during and after rewarming from hypothermic cardiopulmonary bypass. Additionally, patients undergoing normothermic cardiopulmonary bypass may be at higher risk for neurologic injury. This study was designed to determine whether patients undergoing normothermic cardiopulmonary bypass are at increased risk for sustained cerebral desaturation. Fifty-two patients undergoing first-time coronary artery bypass grafting were randomized to receive normothermic (37° C, n= 26) or hypothermic (27° C, n= 26) cardiopulmonary bypass. The anesthetic was standardized and alpha-stat pH management was used. A 4F oximetric catheter was placed in the jugular bulb and cerebral venous and radial arterial blood were sampled. Oxygen partial pressure and saturation were measured at six intervals from cerebral venous blood and from radial arterial blood. Patients receiving normothermic cardiopulmonary bypass had lesser values of oxygen partial pressure and saturation in cerebral venous blood than patients subjected to hypothermia during the first 40 minutes of bypass. Cerebral venous desaturation (oxygen saturation in cerebral venous blood of 50% or less) was observed in 54% of patients in the normothermic group and 12% of patients in the hypothermic group during cardiopulmonary bypass. In the normothermic group, cerebral desaturation occurred primarily in early bypass (14 of 26). The three episodes of desaturation in the hypothermic group occurred during rewarming. During cardiopulmonary bypass, the arteriovenous oxygen content difference was greater in the normothermic group than in that in the hypothermic group, suggesting higher oxygen consumption. Differences in glucose utilization during early cardiopulmonary bypass between the groups was also detected. One patient in the hypothermic group had an embolic stroke and subsequently died. There were no other perioperative strokes or deaths in the study population. The present study demonstrates that patients undergoing normothermic cardiopulmonary bypass are at greater risk for cerebral desaturation. Because it is a global assessment, cerebral venous oxygen saturation may be insensitive to focal ischemic events. It remains to be seen whether these differences in cerebral physiologic states translate into differences in clinical outcome. (J THORACCARDIOVASCSURG1994;107:1020-9)
Until recently, most cardiac surgical procedures that required cardiopulmonary bypass (CPB) were done in the presence of moderate systemic hypothermia (27° to 30° C). Hypothermia reduces tissue metabolic rate and oxygen demand and is used to assist in the protection of the myocardium and brain against potential ischemic insult. 
1,2 Because of reports of improved myocardial performance with warm cardioplegia 3,4 and systemic normothermia, 5 CPB with warm cardioplegia and systemic normothermia is being increasingly used at our institution and elsewhere. Patients undergoing normothermic bypass have a predictably higher cerebral oxygen demand 6 and may be at higher risk for prolonged cerebral desaturation and ischemic injury 7 than has been reported with hypothermic CPB. 8-16
There is evidence that the coupling of cerebral blood flow (CBF) to metabolism is largely preserved during hypothermic CPB using an alpha-stat carbon dioxide management scheme. 17,18 Also when arterial oxygen tension is adequate, cerebral venous oxygen saturation (SjvO2) reflects the global balance of CBF and cerebral metabolic rate (CMRO2). 19-21 Three studies suggest that CMRO2-CBF imbalance occurs during and after warming from hypothermic CPB, with jugular venous desaturation occurring in up to 23% of patients. 22-24 If we presume that CBF is relatively constant during CPB, cerebral desaturation may reflect a rise in cerebral oxygen demand during rewarming. The report of an inverse correlation between SjvO2 and nasopharyngeal temperature would support that conclusion. 22
Jugular venous desaturation may become clinically significant when saturation reaches approximately 50%. During carotid operations, previous investigations found transient neurologic defects with cerebral venous saturations of 50% and no defects when saturations were 60% or better. 25-27 Meyer and colleagues 27 correlated SjvO2 and electroencephalographic changes in normal volunteers and showed consistent electroencephalographic slowing when the cerebral venous partial pressure of oxygen fell to 19 mm Hg (corresponding approximately to an SjvO2 of 40%). Although neurophysiologic changes begin to occur at an SjvO2 of approximately 50%, it is not known how long cerebral desaturation must be maintained for cerebral injury to occur. There have been reports suggesting that systemic normothermia with CPB may be associated with a higher prevalence of neurologic injury. 7,28
The aim of this study was to assess and compare the coupling of cerebral metabolism and CBF in patients undergoing normothermic and hypothermic CPB as indicated by cerebral venous oximetry.
METHODS
After approval by our Institutional Review Board, 52 patients undergoing elective first-time coronary artery bypass grafting were studied after giving informed consent. Patients were equally randomized into two groups: hypothermic (27° C) and normothermic (37° C) CPB. Female patients of childbearing age; patients with clinical or laboratory evidence of cerebrovascular disease, increased intracranial pressure, or insulin-dependent diabetes mellitus; and those with uncontrolled hypertension, contrast allergy, or demonstrated or suspected bacteremia were excluded from the study. Routine carotid ultrasonography and oculoplethysmography were not done.
The anesthetic was standardized. Patients were premedicated with diazepam (5 to 10 mg orally) 90 minutes before induction of anesthesia. On arrival of the patient in the operating room, a radial artery catheter was placed and anesthesia was induced with fentanyl citrate (30 µg/kg intravenously) and midazolam hydrochloride (0.1 mg/kg intravenously) and maintained by fentanyl-midazolam infusion. Muscular relaxation was achieved and maintained with vecuronium or pancuronium, and the trachea was intubated. The lungs were ventilated with 40% to 80% oxygen and arterial carbon dioxide tension (PaCO2) was maintained within the normocapnic range, uncorrected for temperature. A pulmonary artery catheter was placed.
After anesthetic induction, a 4F oximetry catheter (Opticath, Abbott Laboratories, North Chicago, Ill.) was passed to the jugular bulb retrogradely from the internal jugular vein for continuous monitoring of SjvO2. 29-32 The catheter was calibrated in vitro before insertion and recalibrated in vivo if necessary. Proper catheter positioning in the jugular bulb was confirmed by fluoroscopy (radiographic image intensifier) and contrast injection (Fig. 1). Heart rate; arterial, pulmonary artery, and right atrial blood pressures; end tidal carbon dioxide, and nasopharyngeal temperature were continuously measured along with SjvO2.
|
33 The bypass pump was primed to maintain a hematocrit value of 0.20 or greater during the bypass period. Management of hypothermic and normothermic bypass did not differ with the exception of temperature (hypothermic 27° C, normothermic 37° C). Sodium nitroprusside or phenylephrine infusions were used during CPB to maintain mean arterial pressures of 45 to 65 mm Hg. Nasopharyngeal temperature was measured continuously as an indicator of brain temperature. Two surgeons with similar techniques operated on all patients. Coronary artery bypass grafting was done with aortic crossclamping, and intermittent antegrade and retrograde normothermic blood cardioplegia was administered between end distal anastomoses. Proximal anastomoses were done after all distal anastomoses and cardiac reperfusion during CPB. All patients were weaned from CPB without mechanical support and none required epinephrine infusion.
Arterial and jugular bulb venous blood samples were obtained for determination of blood gases, oxygen saturation (IL4-286 Co-Oximeter Instrumentation Laboratories, Inc., Boston, Mass.), and glucose concentration during six periods (Fig. 2). In both groups, prebypass baseline measurements were made 15 minutes after sternotomy (period I) and postbypass measurements were made at 15 and 45 minutes after weaning from CPB (periods V and VI, respectively). In the hypothermic bypass group, samples were also taken at 32° C during cooling (period II), during stable hypothermia at 27° C (period III), and at 32° C during rewarming (period IV). In the normothermic bypass group samples for periods II, III, and IV were taken at 20, 40, and 60 minutes of CPB (Fig. 2). Arterial-to-venous oxygen content difference (AVDO2) and arteriovenous glucose difference (AVDglu) were calculated from measured values. Equations are given as follows:
|
Cxo2 = 1.34 · Hb(Sxo2) + 0.003 (Pxo2)
AVDglu = (Aglu - Vglu) mg · dl-1
where CxO2 is blood oxygen content (venous or arterial), SxO2 is blood oxygen saturation, PxO2 is partial pressure of oxygen, Hb is hemoglobin concentration, and Aglu and Vglu are arterial and venous glucose concentrations.
Temperature and hemodynamic variables were monitored at the same six stages. Cardiac index was measured in each of the nonbypass periods (I, V, VI) and pump flow was recorded in the CPB periods (II, III, IV). No formal neurologic or neuropsychologic testing was done to compare clinical outcome in the two groups.
Protocol and statistical analysis
The 52 subjects were equally divided into normothermic and hypothermic CPB groups by a block randomization method. One subject in the normothermic group had an extracorporeal circulation time less than 60 minutes, so there are only 25 data points in study period IV in the normothermic group. Additionally, only 25 data points in study period V in the hypothermic group were available.
Collection of the data as outlined in the preceding section allowed the following comparisons to be made: (1) SjvO2, arterial glucose, hemoglobin, arterial-to-venous oxygen content difference, and arteriovenous glucose difference in normothermic and hypothermic groups in each of the six study periods; (2) the proportion of patients in each group demonstrating cerebral venous desaturation (SjvO2 less than or equal to 50%) during each of the three CPB periods; (3) examination of saturation trends in each group during CPB; and (4) correlation of physiologic variables (arterial hemoglobin, mean arterial pressure, cardiac index, and arterial carbon dioxide) and cerebral venous desaturation during each period in both normothermic and hypothermic CPB groups.
Data are expressed as mean plus or minus the standard deviation of the mean. Differences from baseline were assessed by the Wilcoxon signed rank test. Comparison of mean values between normothermic and hypothermic groups was done by the Wilcoxon rank sum test. The Wilcoxon rank sum test was also used to assess whether SjvO2 differed with respect to physiologic variables. The prevalence of desaturation in the two groups during CPB was assessed with a comparison of two proportions test. Differences in mean values were considered significant at p 
0.05.
RESULTS
Groups did not differ with respect to age, crossclamp time, bypass time, or number of grafts done (Table I). In the prebypass baseline period (period I), the normothermic and hypothermic groups did not differ as to mean arterial pressure, cardiac index, temperature, hemoglobin, glucose, PaCO2, arterial oxygen tension (PaO2, or SjvO2 (Table II; p > 0.05 by Student's t test).
|
|
|
0.001 by comparison of two proportions (Fig. 5).
|
|
0.01 by comparison of two proportions; Fig. 5).
During rewarming at 32° C (period IV), the SjvO2 of patients in the hypothermic group declined (Fig. 3, A and Fig. 4), whereas the SjvO2 in the normothermic group continued to increase. In period IV, the mean SjvO2 values in the normothermic and hypothermic groups did not differ (Fig. 4). In the hypothermic group, the mean SjvO2 at 32° C during rewarming (62%) was lower than that at 32° C during cooling (68%; p 0.05 by Wilcoxon signed rank test). Additionally, rewarming was the only period in which patients in the hypothermic group demonstrated cerebral venous desaturation (3/26). Three of 25 patients in the normothermic group also demonstrated cerebral venous oxygen desaturation during this period (Fig. 5).
In the normothermic group during CPB, the proportion of patients who demonstrated cerebral desaturation (SjvO2 50%) decreased with the time from a 54% incidence at 20 minutes to a 31% incidence at 40 minutes and a 12% incidence at 60 minutes (Fig. 5).
The arterial-to-venous oxygen content difference between the groups paralleled the intergroup difference in SjvO2. Arterial-to-venous oxygen content difference did not differ between groups in the baseline period, but differed significantly in the normothermic and hypothermic groups in period II (5.6 ± 1.6 and 3.9 ± 1.4 ml · dl-1) and period III (5.3 ± 1.4 and 3.5 ± 1.1 ml · dl-1 ). In period IV, arterial-to-venous oxygen content difference did not differ between groups (Fig. 6).
|
Table II).
|
Although the study was not designed to assess neurologic outcome, we note that one patient of the 52 had an embolic stroke and subsequently died. This patient underwent hypothermic CPB. There were no other perioperative strokes or deaths in either group.
DISCUSSION
Normothermic CPB appears to have beneficial hemodynamic effects, but there is concern that this practice may be associated with a higher risk of neurologic injury. 7,28 Hypothermia reduces cerebral oxygen demand and can protect the brain from ischemic insult. 1,2,6 Although the prevalence of cerebral emboli may not be affected by bypass temperature, it is possible that emboli cause more damage in the warm brain. Additionally, any ischemia that might arise from CPB-induced flow-metabolism mismatch is potentially increased by normal brain temperature. There is evidence that CBF may be insufficient relative to rising cerebral oxygen demand during and after rewarming from hypothermic bypass. 22-24 This phenomenon could be sustained in patients undergoing normothermic CPB.
Jugular bulb cannulation is a relatively simple technique and measurement of the oxygen saturation of cerebral venous blood can provide an estimate of CBF:metabolism coupling. 29-32 Properly placed, a catheter in the jugular bulb can accurately sample cerebral venous blood, inasmuch as less than 5% of the blood traversing the jugular bulb is contaminated from extracerebral sources. 34
The cerebral venous saturation differences between patients undergoing hypothermic bypass and those undergoing normothermic bypass and the prevalence of cerebral venous desaturation in the normothermic group were dramatic. Fifty-four percent of patients undergoing normothermic CPB had periods of cerebral desaturation, implying temporary relative cerebral flow insufficiency during early bypass.
Potentially related findings were reported in an early article by Theye, Patrick, and Kirklin. 35 These investigators reported electroencephalographic changes suggestive of ischemia in 45 of 100 patients on the initiation of normothermic CPB. The authors postulated this may result from cerebral flow insufficiency, although a change in blood temperature related to an ambient-temperature pump prime was also considered. In our study, pump prime was warmed to 34° to 35° C before initiation of CPB.
In the normothermic group, the cerebral circulation appeared to adapt to CPB flow conditions with time. The incidence of cerebral desaturation decreased and mean SjvO2 tended to increase through bypass. If we presume CMRO2 is constant during normothermic CPB, as were pump flow and mean arterial pressure, the increase in cerebral venous saturation with time could be explained by microcirculatory adjustments to nonpulsatile flow. This circulatory change appears to be sustained for some period after CPB as demonstrated by persistent elevations in SjvO2 in the postbypass periods.
The results in our hypothermic group are similar to those of Croughwell and associates 23 in that patients receiving hypothermic CPB demonstrated increasing SjvO2 and decreasing arterial-to-venous oxygen content difference with cooling. Furthermore, all episodes of desaturation in the hypothermic group were confined to the period of rewarming. We report a lower prevalence of cerebral desaturation during rewarming (3/26, 12%) than Croughwell and associates 23 (23%), probably because our measurements were taken at 32° C and that group's at 36° C; we may also have rewarmed more slowly. During rewarming, temperature was allowed to stabilize at 32° C before samples were taken. The delay at 32° C may have allowed for some adjustments of the CBF to the rising CMRO2.
Hypothermia reduces CMRO2 to a proportionately greater extent than CBF, resulting in "luxuriant perfusion." 36,37 The increases in SjvO2 and decreases in arterial-to-venous oxygen content difference we report provide further physiologic evidence for this phenomenon. Though it may be naive to suggest that lower pump flow rates would reduce cerebral embolic events, evidence of "luxuriant perfusion" might support the safety of lower flow rates in patients undergoing hypothermic bypass. 37,38
It ultimately remains to be asked what the significance of these differences in cerebral physiologic states is. The one patient who had frank neurologic injury underwent hypothermic CPB and multiple embolic infarcts were documented by postoperative computed tomography. Although emboli may be responsible for most grossly apparent bypass-related brain injury, subtle neuropsychologic defects are more common and flow:metabolism mismatch should not be discounted, inasmuch as oxygen demand can be manipulated by perfusate temperature. Though desaturation did not correlate to gross neurologic injury, complex neuropsychologic testing might have been more revealing. Finally, the study excluded patient groups at high risk for cerebral events. Cerebral saturation assessment may have some role in these groups.
Cerebral venous oxygen saturation assesses the balance between CBF and CMRO2, but does not quantify either variable. Specific measurements of CBF and CMRO2 during CPB would be more desirable, and hypotheses as to what is occurring in the cerebral circulation during bypass would be less speculative if direct measurements were made.
In conclusion, patients undergoing normothermic CPB demonstrate significantly lower cerebral venous oxygen saturation than patients undergoing hypothermic CPB during extracorporeal circulation. Cerebral flow:metabolism matching is disturbed during early normothermic CPB, but with time the cerebral vasculature appears to adapt to the circulatory conditions. It remains to be seen whether these neurophysiologic abnormalities will translate into clinical outcome differences.
Appendix: DISCUSSION
Dr. Richard J. Hurvitz (Los Angeles, Calif.).
This article addresses cerebral protection during normothermic and hypothermic CPB. The topic of normothermia versus hypothermia for myocardial protection is indeed one of the more controversial topics in cardiac surgery today. A large body of information, regarding the efficacy of hypothermia for protection of the heart, as well as other organs, dates back to Drs. Bigelow and Swan in the 1950s. The information regarding normothermic cardioplegia is both relatively recent and meager. There appear to be some compelling reasons for its use; however, it is a relatively more complex procedure and the "margin of safety" is reduced. There are at this time more questions than answers regarding normothermic cardioplegia.
Our surgical group at the University of Southern California continues to rely on the protection of cold, in addition to the other modalities involved with the myocardial protection process. I would urge caution to persons who wish to begin the technique of warm cardioplegia and suggest the evaluation of further reports, like the one presented and that from the groups that have already gone through the learning curve on this technique, before jumping on the bandwagon.
I have the following two questions. First, the authors state that some patients received nitroprusside, but do not specifically identify these patients. Because nitroprusside, by generating cyanide, can interfere with oxygen uptake at the cellular level, do the authors think it might have affected the results? Second, now that the authors have shown that there is a significant difference in the cerebral venous oxygen saturation in the two techniques, are they attempting to evaluate neurologic outcome between the two techniques?
Dr. Cook.
I did not report requirements for vasodilators or inotropic agents as part of the study. It is a relevant question, though. What we found was that patients undergoing hypothermia during bypass required significantly higher doses and a higher frequency of use of nitroprusside to maintain the blood pressures within the range defined by the protocol. Cyanide toxicity decreases oxygen use and would alter saturation values. There was no evidence in either group that any cyanide toxicity developed. With the examination of both arterial and venous blood in the cerebral circulation, as well as systemically, there was no evidence that any alteration in cellular metabolism was occurring.
Dr. Hurvitz.
Now that you have shown there is a significant difference, are you attempting to evaluate neurologic outcome between the two techniques?
Dr. Cook.
Yes, we are. The Mayo Foundation and the American Heart Association are supporting a comprehensive project with Drs. Oliver, Orszulak, and Daly and me not only to directly quantitate CBF and metabolism but also to do intraoperative electroencephalography in patients undergoing normothermic bypass and finally to do complex studies of both short- and long-term neurologic outcome.
Dr. John Opie (Phoenix, Ariz.).
On the second conclusion on the discussion slides, the authors mentioned that there is an ischemic time associated with their findings. I would submit that it is not really an ischemic finding that has been produced but rather a desaturation finding. It is not an ischemic time at all and I do not think it should be defined as ischemic.
We have just completed a study published in The Annals of Thoracic Surgery on about 358 patients on whom we operated with warm continuous blood cardioplegia. Like you, we found no strokes except in a comparison cold group that had one or two residual strokes.
Dr. Cook.
I think your point is well taken. It is a matter of definition. I think desaturation would be a better term in that context.
Dr. Steve Gundry (Loma Linda, Calif.).
I noticed that the authors said the anesthetic management was controlled by protocol. Perhaps you can enlighten us as to whether flow rates were increased in patients receiving normothermic CPB and whether dips in blood pressure that occurred during normothermia were treated with phenylephrine hydrochloride (Neo-Synephrine).
Dr. Cook.
The flow rates did not differ between the two groups; they were defined by the protocol. We kept the CPB flow rate for all patients at 2.2 to 2.4 L · min-1 · m -2. We thought that treating dips in saturation would potentially alter the results of the study and therefore they were not treated.
Dr. Gundry.
I mean dips in mean arterial pressure.
Dr. Cook.
Yes. Mean arterial pressure was maintained between 45 and 65 mm Hg rigorously in both groups.
Dr. Gundry.
How did you maintain it in the normothermic group?
Dr. Cook.
We frequently had to use phenylephrine to maintain pressure in those ranges.
Dr. Gundry.
Did you look at cerebral oxygen saturation during the times that phenylephrine was administered to keep up the mean arterial pressure?
Dr. Cook.
No, we did not directly isolate those patients receiving phenylephrine. In a few patients in pilot work that we did, I attempted to treat falls in saturation with phenylephrine infusion and there did seem to be transient increases or improvements in saturation as the mean arterial pressure was increased, but that finding is certainly only anecdotal.
Dr. Gundry.
My second question is that obviously a lot of the data refer to differences in oxygen saturation between inflow and outflow oxygen saturation changes. Did you correct for any effect that hypothermia had on shifting the oxygen hemoglobin dissociation curve? I think a lot of the findings are directly related to that shift in the patients undergoing hypothermic bypass, which would invalidate your conclusions.
Dr. Cook.
No, we did not make those corrections.
Acknowledgments
We thank the Critical Care Division of Abbott Laboratories for provision of the oximetric catheters used in this study.
Footnotes
Read at the Nineteenth Annual Meeting of The Western Thoracic Surgical Association, Carlsbad, Calif., June 23-26, 1993. 
References
This article has been cited by other articles:
|
|
 |
|
  A. M. Grigore, C. F. Murray, H. Ramakrishna, and G. Djaiani A Core Review of Temperature Regimens and Neuroprotection During Cardiopulmonary Bypass: Does Rewarming Rate Matter? Anesth. Analg., December 1, 2009; 109(6): 1741 - 1751. [Abstract] [Full Text] [PDF]
|
|
|
|
 |
|
 J. S. Savino and A. T. Cheung Cardiac Anesthesia Card. Surg. Adult, January 1, 2008; 3(2008): 281 - 314. [Full Text]
|
|
|
|
 |
|
 H. Kaukuntla, A. Walker, D. Harrington, T. Jones, and R. S. Bonser Differential brain and body temperature during cardiopulmonary bypass--a randomised clinical study Eur. J. Cardiothorac. Surg., September 1, 2004; 26(3): 571 - 579. [Abstract] [Full Text] [PDF]
|
|
|
|
|
|
H. T. Kiziltan, M. Baltali, A. Bilen, G. Seydaoglu, M. Incesoz, A. Tasdelen, and S. Aslamaci Comparison of Alpha-Stat and pH-Stat Cardiopulmonary Bypass in Relation to Jugular Venous Oxygen Saturation and Cerebral Glucose-Oxygen Utilization Anesth. Analg., March 1, 2003; 96(3): 644 - 650. [Abstract] [Full Text] [PDF]
|
|
|
|
 |
|
 D. J. Cook, T. A. Orszulak, K. J. Zehr, N. A. Nussmeier, J. J. Livesay, J. W. Hammon, and X. Chen Effectiveness of the Cobra aortic catheter for dual-temperature management during adult cardiac surgery J. Thorac. Cardiovasc. Surg., February 1, 2003; 125(2): 378 - 384. [Abstract] [Full Text] [PDF]
|
|
|
|
|
|
J. S. Savino, T. F. Floyd, and A. T. Cheung Cardiac Anesthesia Card. Surg. Adult, January 1, 2003; 2(2003): 249 - 281. [Full Text]
|
|
|
|
|
|
J. M. Slater, T. A. Orszulak, K. J. Zehr, and D. J. Cook Use of the Cobra catheter for targeted temperature management during cardiopulmonary bypass in swine J. Thorac. Cardiovasc. Surg., May 1, 2002; 123(5): 936 - 942. [Abstract] [Full Text] [PDF]
|
|
|
|
 |
|
 D. J. Cook Optimal Conditions for Cardiopulmonary Bypass Seminars in Cardiothoracic and Vascular Anesthesia, November 1, 2001; 5(4): 265 - 272. [Abstract] [PDF]
|
|
|
|
 |
|
 Y. Kadoi, S. Saito, F. Goto, and N. Fujita Decrease in jugular venous oxygen saturation during normothermic cardiopulmonary bypass predicts short-term postoperative neurologic dysfunction in elderly patients J. Am. Coll. Cardiol., November 1, 2001; 38(5): 1450 - 1455. [Abstract] [Full Text] [PDF]
|
|
|
|
|
|
K. Hashimoto, T. Sasaki, T. Hachiya, K. Onoguchi, H. Takakura, M. Oshiumi, and S. Takeuchi Superior hepatic mitochondrial oxidation-reduction state in normothermic cardiopulmonary bypass J. Thorac. Cardiovasc. Surg., June 1, 2001; 121(6): 1179 - 1186. [Abstract] [Full Text] [PDF]
|
|
|
|
|
|
J. M. Murkin Central Nervous System Complications in Cardiac Surgery: Retrograde Cerebral Perfusion, Pressure, Pulsatility, Temperature, and pH Management During Cardiopulmonary Bypass Seminars in Cardiothoracic and Vascular Anesthesia, July 1, 2000; 4(2): 65 - 69. [Abstract] [PDF]
|
|
|
|
 |
|
 W. A. C. Mutch, R. K. Warrian, G. M. Eschun, L. G. Girling, L. Doiron, M. S. Cheang, and G. R. Lefevre Biologically variable pulsation improves jugular venous oxygen saturation during rewarming Ann. Thorac. Surg., February 1, 2000; 69(2): 491 - 497. [Abstract] [Full Text] [PDF]
|
|
|
|
|
|
F. Kawahara, Y. Kadoi, S. Saito, D. Yoshikawa, F. Goto, and N. Fujita BALLOON PUMP-INDUCED PULSATILE PERFUSION DURING CARDIOPULMONARY BYPASS DOES NOT IMPROVE BRAIN OXYGENATION J. Thorac. Cardiovasc. Surg., August 1, 1999; 118(2): 361 - 366. [Abstract] [Full Text] [PDF]
|
|
|
|
|
|
Y. Kadoi, F. Kawahara, S. Saito, T. Morita, F. Kunimoto, F. Goto, and N. Fujita Effects of hypothermic and normothermic cardiopulmonary bypass on brain oxygenation Ann. Thorac. Surg., July 1, 1999; 68(1): 34 - 39. [Abstract] [Full Text] [PDF]
|
|
|
|
|
|
R. M. Engelman, A. B. Pleet, J. A. Rousou, J. E. Flack III, D. W. Deaton, P. S. Pekow, and C. A. Gregory Influence of cardiopulmonary bypass perfusion temperature on neurologic and hematologic function after coronary artery bypass grafting Ann. Thorac. Surg., June 1, 1999; 67(6): 1547 - 1555. [Abstract] [Full Text] [PDF]
|
|
|
|
|
|
J. N. McCullough, N. Zhang, D. L. Reich, T. S. Juvonen, J. J. Klein, D. Spielvogel, M. A. Ergin, and R. B. Griepp Cerebral metabolic suppression during hypothermic circulatory arrest in humans Ann. Thorac. Surg., June 1, 1999; 67(6): 1895 - 1899. [Abstract] [Full Text] [PDF]
|
|
|
|
|
|
P.E.F. Daubeney, D.C. Smith, S.N. Pilkington, R.K. Lamb, J.L. Monro, V.T. Tsang, S.A. Livesey, and S.A. Webber Cerebral oxygenation during paediatric cardiac surgery: identification of vulnerable periods using near infrared spectroscopy Eur. J. Cardiothorac. Surg., April 1, 1999; 13(4): 370 - 377. [Abstract] [Full Text] [PDF]
|
|
|
|
|
|
C. T. Wass, J. R. Waggoner III, D. G. Cable, H. V. Schaff, D. R. Schroeder, and W. L. Lanier Selective convective brain cooling during hypothermic cardiopulmonary bypass in dogs Ann. Thorac. Surg., December 1, 1998; 66(6): 2008 - 2014. [Abstract] [Full Text] [PDF]
|
|
|
|
 |
|
 D N. Harris, J A Wilson, S D Taylor-Robinson, and K M Taylor Magnetic resonance spectroscopy of high-energy phosphates and lactate immediately after coronary artery bypass surgery Perfusion, September 1, 1998; 13(5): 328 - 333. [Abstract] [PDF]
|
|
|
|
|
|
G. Grubhofer, A. M. Lassnigg, B. Schneider, M. A. Rajek, T. Pernerstorfer, and M. J. Hiesmayr Jugular Venous Bulb Oxygen Saturation Depends on Blood Pressure During Cardiopulmonary Bypass Ann. Thorac. Surg., March 1, 1998; 65(3): 653 - 657. [Abstract] [Full Text] [PDF]
|
|
|
|
|
|
D. J. Cook, W. C. Oliver Jr, T. A. Orszulak, R. C. Daly, and R. D. Bryce Cardiopulmonary Bypass Temperature, Hematocrit, and Cerebral Oxygen Delivery in Humans Ann. Thorac. Surg., December 1, 1995; 60(6): 1671 - 1677. [Abstract] [Full Text]
|
|
|
|
|
|
J. M. Murkin The Role of CPB Management in Neurobehavioral Outcomes After Cardiac Surgery Ann. Thorac. Surg., May 1, 1995; 59(5): 1308 - 1311. [Abstract] [Full Text]
|
|
| ||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||
| HOME | HELP | FEEDBACK | SUBSCRIPTIONS | ARCHIVE | SEARCH | TABLE OF CONTENTS |
| ANN THORAC SURG | ASIAN CARDIOVASC THORAC ANN | EUR J CARDIOTHORAC SURG |
| J THORAC CARDIOVASC SURG | ICVTS | ALL CTSNet JOURNALS |
