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J Thorac Cardiovasc Surg 1997;113:242-247
© 1997 Mosby, Inc.
GENERAL THORACIC SURGERY |
Received for publication May 21, 1996 revisions requested July 2, 1996; revisions received July 29, 1996 accepted for publication August 2, 1996. Address for reprints: Kenneth A. Kesler, MD, Department of Surgery, Thoracic Division, Indiana University School of Medicine, 545 Barnhill Dr., Emerson Hall, Room 212, Indianapolis, IN 46202.
Abstract
Background: Although the sternoclavicular joint is an unusual site for infection, thoracic surgeons may preferentially be called on to coordinate management of cases refractory to antibiotic therapy because of the anatomic relationship of this joint to major vascular structures.Methods: Since 1994 we have surgically managed nine sternoclavicular joint infections in eight patients. Associated medical problems were frequent and included diabetes mellitus (n = 2), end-stage renal disease (n = 2), hematologic disorders (n = 2), and multiple joints affected by sepsis (n = 4). Open joint exploration with drainage and débridement with the use of general anesthesia was performed in four patients. The remaining four patients (one with bilateral sternoclavicular joint infections) had computed tomographic evidence of diffuse joint and surrounding bone destruction with infection extending into mediastinal soft tissues. Surgical therapy for these five joint infections involved en bloc resection of the sternoclavicular joint with an ipsilateral pectoralis major muscle covering the bony defect.Results: There were two deaths unrelated to the surgical procedure. After a mean follow-up of 20 months, the remaining six survivors (seven joints) have complete healing with no apparent limitation in the range of motion even after en bloc resection.Conclusions: Most cases of early sternoclavicular joint infections will respond to conservative measures. However, when radiographic evidence of infection beyond the sternoclavicular joint is present, en bloc resection, although seemingly aggressive, results in immediate eradication of all infection with negligible functional morbidity. Prolonged antibiotic therapy or continued local drainage procedures appear to have little value in these cases, adding only to patient care costs and the potential sequelae of chronic infections.
The sternoclavicular joint (SCJ) is a synovial fluid–lined space consisting of the inferior portion of the medial head of the clavicle, a notch on the upper outer portion of the manubrium, and the cartilage of the first rib.
1 The articular capsule surrounding the joint is reinforced by the anterior, posterior, and interclavicular ligaments. 2 Infection of the SCJ is relatively uncommon. However, when infection does occur, the joint capsule and surrounding ligaments initially confine such processes. For most cases of early SCJ infection, removal of any indwelling subclavian venous catheter that may be a potential source of infection, intravenous antibiotics, and percutaneous joint aspiration, when appropriate, are effective.
Patients with SCJ infections frequently have associated risk factors, however, which may minimize symptoms or otherwise delay the patient's request for therapy, such as intravenous drug abuse or compromised host immunity. 3,4 Development of osteomyelitis of the surrounding bony structures can be difficult to eradicate and even life-threatening, particularly in immunocompromised patients. Further delay in appropriate therapy may result in rupture of the joint capsule with infection tracking into the chest wall, retrosternum, or superior mediastinum. 5 We describe an aggressive but rational approach used for the surgical management of nine SCJ infections refractory to conservative therapy at our institution based on clinical, radiographic, and operative findings.
Patients and methods
Patients.
From May 1994 to March 1996, eight patients with nine SCJ infections were referred to the Indiana University Thoracic Surgery Service. Medical history, culture results, and suspected causes of each infection were collated from review of hospital charts. Radiographic data were obtained from review of routine radiographs, bone scans, and computed tomographic (CT) scans when available. This study comprised seven men and one woman with a mean age of 51.0 years (range 40 to 69 years). Their clinical characteristics are summarized in Table I.
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Five SCJ infections were attributed to an indwelling central venous catheter (one pacemaker) placed percutaneously in the subclavian vein (four ipsilateral, one contralateral). These central lines were indwelling for a mean of 39.6 days (range 7 to 90 days) before diagnosis. Two patients had other joints affected by sepsis (left knee and left wrist; thoracic spine), and another patient had a history of penetrating soft tissue injury to the ipsilateral forearm 14 days before the onset of symptoms. These three infections were attributed to hematogenous seeding of the SCJ.
Plain radiographs to evaluate the SCJ in this series were not uniformly helpful in establishing the diagnosis, nor did they demonstrate the extent of these infections. Bone scans, however, identified and localized the infection to the SCJ in seven joints (Table II). Not only were all CT scans diagnostic for SCJ infection but, more important, they defined the extent of bone and mediastinal involvement (Figs. 1 and 2). Skin pathogens were predominantly recovered, with Staphylococcus aureus being the most common bacterium, isolated from five joints. Staphylococcus epidermidis, Enterococcus, Escherichia coli, Pseudomonas aeruginosa, and Propionibacterium were also cultured either independently or in conjunction with Staphylococcus aureus.
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When CT demonstrated direct mediastinal extension with abscess formation or evidence of extensive adjacent bone involvement, en bloc resection of the joint including the surrounding bony structures and infected soft tissue was performed (five joints, one bilateral). A hockey-stick type of incision was made over the clavicle and sternal midline from the midclavicular level to the approximate level of the fifth intercostal space. Any severely infected skin overlying the SCJ or mediastinal-cutaneous fistula was included with the specimen. The medial third of the clavicle, cartilaginous portion of the first rib, and lateral half of the manubrium were resected en bloc (Fig. 3, A and B). The horizontal and transverse manubrial osteotomies were made with a standard sternal saw; however, a Gille saw passed underneath the clavicle was used to divide this bone, thereby avoiding injury to the underlying subclavian vein. In four joints, the cartilaginous portions of the second and third ribs were involved and therefore resected with the remainder of the specimen, which required inferior extension of the manubrial osteotomy. One patient in this series underwent en bloc bilateral SCJ resection including the entire manubrium for bilateral infections. In all of these patients, the internal thoracic vessels were ligated at the superior and inferior margins of the chest wall resection and could not be spared because of periosteal inflammation. Careful attention was given during these resections to the underlying vascular structures, particularly the subclavian vein, which was found to be densely adherent to the posterior aspect of these infected SCJs. Despite careful dissection techniques, a tear occurred on one subclavian vein while the bony thoracic inlet was being removed, resulting in the acute loss of 400 ml of blood until control and repair could be effected. All chest wall defects were covered by mobilization and rotation of the ipsilateral pectoralis major muscle, preserving the thoracoacromial vascular pedicle, in conjunction with our Plastic Surgery Division. Suction drainage catheters were placed beneath the muscle and left until negligible drainage (<5 ml in 24 hours) occurred.
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Results
After a mean follow-up of 20 months, the surviving patients have had no limitation in strength or range of motion of the ipsilateral limb even after SCJ resection. There have been no recurrent or persistent infections. The patient who underwent bilateral SCJ resection had a wound seroma that resolved with local drainage. There were two deaths in this series. One patient in the open drainage group died of refractory endocarditis 1 month after the operation. The other patient had undergone SCJ resection and died of a complication of a gastrointestinal hemorrhage 2 weeks after being discharged from the hospital. Both deaths were unrelated to the SCJ procedures. There has otherwise been no morbidity or mortality. Patients who underwent open drainage with débridement had an average hospital stay of 23.5 days (range 4 to 49) after the surgical procedure, whereas those who had SCJ resection stayed an average of 12.9 days (range 6 to 27).
Appendix: Discussion
Infection of the SCJ mainly occurs in patients with predisposing conditions such as intravenous drug abuse, systemic diseases treated with steroids, diabetes, or chronic renal failure. 1 SCJ infections may occur as a result of hematogenous bacteremia but more commonly are a sequela of subclavian venous catheters in susceptible patients. Direct inoculation of the joint during attempts at percutaneous subclavian vein catheterization can occur. However, others have suggested that colonization of the catheter tract results in seeding of the SCJ capsule, which may have been traumatized at the time of insertion. 3 Our findings of Staphylococcus aureus as the most frequently isolated bacterium in catheter-related SCJ infections supports theories of more direct joint contamination by skin pathogens in these cases. 3,4,6-9
Because of the increasing use of subclavian venous catheters, it is important to recognize SCJ infection as a rare but potential complication. At the first sign of symptoms, which is usually pain, the central venous catheter should be removed and anti-staphylococcal antibiotics administered through a peripheral vein. If the clinical diagnosis of SCJ infection is in question, bone scans have been highly sensitive in our series and others for detection of osteomyelitis. 10 When swelling and erythema are present, needle aspiration of the joint for both bacteriologic diagnosis and therapeutic drainage should be attempted. The majority of early SCJ infections in our experience have responded to these conservative measures. If infectious signs and symptoms do not rapidly resolve, CT scan with fine cuts through the SCJ should be obtained to determine the extent of infection before surgical intervention. Despite all current imaging modalities, however, we believe early open exploration with the patient under general anesthesia remains optimal from both diagnostic and therapeutic standpoints.
The time interval between SCJ infection and symptoms varies, and therefore a delay in diagnosis is not uncommon. 11 Moreover, repeated drainage procedures done with local anesthesia may result in inadequate initial therapy, especially in patients with compromised host immunity. In the later stages of SCJ infection, abscess formation with direct extension into the mediastinum and adjacent chest wall is reported to occur in as many as 21% of cases. 1,12 Other CT findings in later stages include periosteal reaction, bony sequestra, reactive sclerosis, sinus tracts, and air-fluid levels. 10,12,13 In these advanced cases, en bloc resection of all infected tissue including the SCJ immediately resolves a situation in which prolonged antibiotic therapy has a low likelihood of success.
The SCJ is the only connection of the shoulder complex to the axial skeleton. 2 Motion at the SCJ contributes to shoulder abduction and flexion by elevation and rotation of the clavicle, respectively. 1,2,14 Although the SCJ contributes to the stability of the shoulder joint complex, removal results in minimal restriction of motion. 15 Seven cases of SCJ resection for extensive infection have previously been reported, only one of which involved muscle coverage of the defect. 5,12,15,16 These previous reports have originated from the orthopedic surgical literature. However, we believe that thoracic surgical expertise results in optimal care, particularly if resection is performed, because separation of the bony thoracic inlet from underlying vascular structures may be hazardous if the subclavian vein is adherent as a result of periosteal inflammation. In these previous reports, most surgical defects were left open and allowed to heal by secondary intention; although ultimately successful, this approach added to recovery time and patient care. We further believe that coverage of the exposed brachiocephalic vessels with vascularized muscle is important, not only to bring capillary ingrowth into a critical area probably containing low-grade infection but also for long-term protection of these vessels against external trauma. This principle has been previously well demonstrated by Pairolero, Arnold, and Harris 17 after sternal débridement for both local infection control and protection of the mediastinal structures after cardiac procedures.
The early diagnosis of SCJ infection is critical for successful therapy; however, thoracic surgeons are likely to encounter more advanced cases of these rare infections as the use of subclavian venous catheters and the number of immunocompromised patients continue to increase. An aggressive surgical approach including early open drainage and débridement done with general anesthesia or SCJ resection with muscle flap coverage for more advanced cases, although seemingly radical, appears to avoid prolonged hospitalization and sequelae of chronic infection.
Footnotes
From the Indiana University School of Medicine, Department of Surgery, Divisions of Thoracica and Plastic Surgery,b and the Department of Radiology,c Indianapolis, Ind. 
References
This article has been cited by other articles:
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  W. Abu Arab, I. Khadragui, V. Echave, A. Deshaies, C. Sirois, and M. Sirois Surgical management of sternoclavicular joint infection Eur J Cardiothorac Surg, September 1, 2011; 40(3): 630 - 635. [Abstract] [Full Text] [PDF]
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S. R. Eckhouse, T. D. Person, C. E. Reed, J. S. Ikonomidis, and C. E. Denlinger Sternoclavicular Joint Infection Necessitating Through Skin and Lung Parenchyma Ann. Thorac. Surg., July 1, 2010; 90(1): 309 - 311. [Abstract] [Full Text] [PDF]
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H. M. Burkhart, C. Deschamps, M. S. Allen, F. C. Nichols III, D. L. Miller, and P. C. Pairolero Surgical management of sternoclavicular joint infections J. Thorac. Cardiovasc. Surg., April 1, 2003; 125(4): 945 - 949. [Abstract] [Full Text] [PDF]
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H. K. Song, T. S. Guy, L. R. Kaiser, and J. B. Shrager Current presentation and optimal surgical management of sternoclavicular joint infections Ann. Thorac. Surg., February 1, 2002; 73(2): 427 - 431. [Abstract] [Full Text] [PDF]
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 C. H. Lim, J. Lim, M. J. Naik, and T. Agasthian Surgical Management of Sternoclavicular Joint Infection Asian Cardiovasc Thorac Ann, December 1, 2001; 9(4): 291 - 295. [Abstract] [Full Text] [PDF]
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