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J Thorac Cardiovasc Surg 2005;129:1322-1329
© 2005 The American Association for Thoracic Surgery
Surgery for Acquired Cardiovascular Disease |
a Center for Atrial Fibrillation and the Department of Thoracic and Cardiovascular Surgery, The Cleveland Clinic Foundation, Cleveland, Ohio.
b Department of Qualitative Health Sciences, The Cleveland Clinic Foundation, Cleveland, Ohio.
c Department of Cardiovascular Medicine, The Cleveland Clinic Foundation, Cleveland, Ohio.
Read at the Thirtieth Annual Meeting of The Western Thoracic Surgical Association, Maui, Hawaii, June 23–26, 2004.
Received for publication June 23, 2004; revisions received October 21, 2004; accepted for publication December 15, 2004. * Address for reprints: A. Marc Gillinov, MD, Department of Thoracic and Cardiovascular Surgery, The Cleveland Clinic Foundation/F24, 9500 Euclid Ave, Cleveland, OH 44195. (Email: gillinom{at}ccf.org).
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Abstract |
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 Top Abstract Materials and MethodsResultsDiscussionDiscussionElectronic Appendix 1Electronic Appendix 2Electronic Appendix 3Electronic Appendix 4Electronic Appendix 5Electronic Appendix 6References |
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METHODS: From November 2001 to January 2004, 513 patients underwent atrial fibrillation ablation (bipolar radiofrequency alone or with cryothermy) and other cardiac operations. Rhythm documented on 3495 postoperative electrocardiograms was used to estimate the prevalence of and risk factors for atrial fibrillation across time. Ablation failure was defined as occurrence of atrial fibrillation any time beyond 6 months after operation.
RESULTS: Prevalence of postoperative atrial fibrillation peaked at about 1 month, decreased to 13% at 6 months, and gradually increased thereafter. Risk factors associated with increased prevalence varied by time period and included older age (P = .004) for early occurrence, lesion set in permanent atrial fibrillation (P = .02) for late occurrence, and larger left atrial diameter (P = .02) and permanent atrial fibrillation (P < .0001) for occurrence across the entire time span. Freedom from ablation failure was 72% at 12 months. Risk factors for ablation failure included lesion set in permanent atrial fibrillation (P = .001), longer duration of atrial fibrillation (P = .01), and larger left atrial diameter (P = .03).
CONCLUSIONS: Bipolar radiofrequency enables extension of ablation to most cardiac surgical patients with atrial fibrillation. Recurrence is influenced by the type and duration of atrial fibrillation, choice of lesion set in permanent atrial fibrillation, and left atrial size. Early operation, careful choice of lesion set, and left atrial reduction might enhance results.
Recently, there has been great interest in direct surgical ablation of AF, fueled by technologic advances and demonstration that the pulmonary veins and left atrium are the primary sites of drivers of AF.6–12 Ablation technologies, such as bipolar radiofrequency (RF), enable surgeons to isolate the pulmonary veins and create linear left atrial lesions rapidly and safely.6–11 However, results of these new procedures require scrutiny. The objectives of this study of cardiac surgical patients undergoing AF ablation with bipolar RF were to (1) quantify the time-related prevalence of AF after operation and identify its risk factors and (2) determine time-related ablation failure and its risk factors.
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Materials and Methods |
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TopAbstractMaterials and MethodsResultsDiscussionDiscussionElectronic Appendix 1Electronic Appendix 2Electronic Appendix 3Electronic Appendix 4Electronic Appendix 5Electronic Appendix 6References |
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AF Ablation
Bipolar RF
All patients underwent AF ablation with the Atricure (West Chester, Ohio) bipolar RF system. In this system, electrodes reside in the jaws of an atraumatic clamp. Energy delivery is continued until tissue conductance between electrodes decreases and reaches a steady state for 2 seconds, indicating transmural conduction block.8,9
Lesion sets
Ablation was generally performed after cardiac arrest but before the principal operative procedure. Lesion sets varied over time and were performed at the discretion of the surgeon in a nonrandomized fashion (see Electronic Appendix Figure E1). Four basic lesion sets were used most commonly, and these were termed lesion sets 1, 2, 3, and 4 (Figure 1). In all patients, pulmonary veins were isolated with the bipolar RF clamp.
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There were differences between patients receiving different lesion sets. Compared with those receiving lesion set 1, patients receiving lesion sets 2, 3, and 4 were more likely to have a mitral valve procedure; in addition, those receiving lesion sets 3 and 4 were less likely to have paroxysmal AF. Compared with patients receiving lesion set 1, patients with permanent AF receiving lesion sets 2, 3, and 4 were more likely to have mitral valve disease and left atrial enlargement and less likely to have coronary artery disease (see Electronic Appendixes 1–4).
Follow-up
Postoperative electrocardiograms (ECGs) were used to assess AF. ECGs were performed routinely before discharge and at the discretion of referring physicians during follow-up. Recommended ECG follow-up intervals were 1 month, 3 months, 6 months, 1 year, and annually thereafter. A total of 3495 postoperative ECGs were retrieved. Every patient had at least one record available for analysis (range, 1 day to 25 months). One hundred ninety-five patients had an ECG 6 months or more after operation (Figure 2 and see Electronic Appendix 5, available at www.mosby.com/jtcvs). For purposes of analysis, any one of the following 3 rhythms was considered as postoperative AF: AF, atrial flutter, or a paced rhythm with underlying AF or atrial flutter.
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Analysis and Depiction of Data
Prevalence of and risk factors for AF
Because there is no practical method for continuous heart rhythm assessment, a novel statistical technique was developed to depict the prevalence of AF versus time on the basis of discrete ECG recordings. We attempted to solve multiple challenges simultaneously: repeated ECG recordings for each patient (repeated measures), variable times of recording, censoring by death, and a complex temporal pattern of AF prevalence that likely represented the variable effect of different modulating factors across time. The analytic approach taken was temporal decomposition, using several simple additive components (early, constant, and late in this instance) into which separate streams of modulating variables were incorporated for simultaneous analysis. The mathematic models used were derived from those previously used over the last 20 years for decomposition of time-to-event data.14 Longitudinal binary logistic regression analysis for repeated measurements (PROC NLMIXED, SAS, Inc, Cary, NC) was used to resolve the number of time components and to estimate the shaping parameters of each.
Multivariable analysis was performed in the odds domain to identify risk factors for each component (see Electronic Appendix 6, available at www.mosby.com/jtcvs). Because of the limited ability of PROC NLMIXED to explore multivariable relations, we screened variables using ordinary multivariable logistic regression analysis (PROC LOGISTIC, SAS) with a liberal retention criterion (P 
.15). Candidate risk factors identified were entered at once into PROC NLMIXED and then eliminated one by one until all variables remaining had a P value of .1 or less.
Ablation failure and risk factors
Ablation failure was defined as any occurrence of AF or atrial flutter 6 months or more after ablation. Therefore, to be at risk of ablation failure, patients had to have an ECG obtained in this timeframe. Patients were considered to have ablation failure even if late AF was transient. Data were considered interval censored, with the event assumed to occur between the time of an ECG showing AF and the immediately preceding ECG not showing AF.
To identify risk factors for ablation failure,14 a parametric model was used to resolve a number of instantaneous risks of the interval-censored event (hazard function) and to estimate shaping parameters. (For additional details, see http://www.clevelandclinic.org/heartcenter/hazard.) Variable selection was by bootstrap bagging15,16 using a retention criterion of P less than .05 and considering variables appearing in 50% or more models as reliably significant at this level.
Presentation
Predicted percentages of prevalence of AF and freedom-from-event curves are accompanied by asymmetric 68% confidence limits (CLs) comparable to ±1 SE.
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Results |
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TopAbstractMaterials and MethodsResultsDiscussionDiscussionElectronic Appendix 1Electronic Appendix 2Electronic Appendix 3Electronic Appendix 4Electronic Appendix 5Electronic Appendix 6References |
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Heart Rhythm
Prevalence of AF and its risk factors
A curve demonstrating the time-related predicted prevalence of AF or atrial flutter after operation is depicted in Figure 3. Early prevalence of AF peaked at 38% (CL, 35%-41%) at 2 weeks. By 6 months, the prevalence decreased to 13% (CL, 12%-15%), gradually increasing thereafter to 16% (CL, 13%-19%) at 1 year. At 6 months, 26% of patients were taking antiarrhythmic medications (see Figure E2), and 50% were taking warfarin (see Figure E3).
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Discussion |
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TopAbstractMaterials and MethodsResultsDiscussionDiscussionElectronic Appendix 1Electronic Appendix 2Electronic Appendix 3Electronic Appendix 4Electronic Appendix 5Electronic Appendix 6References |
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AF in Cardiac Surgical Patients
The rationale for restoring sinus rhythm in patients presenting for cardiac surgery includes (1) improving survival, (2) reducing risk of stroke and other systemic embolism, (3) eliminating need for anticoagulation, (4) reducing symptoms associated with tachycardia, and (5) improving cardiac output.1–3 Because most of these patients do not revert to sinus rhythm with treatment of their primary cardiac lesion (with the possible exception of AF of short duration), we took an aggressive approach to ablation.17
Although the Cox maze III procedure restores sinus rhythm or an atrioventricular paced rhythm in 75% to 95% of patients undergoing concomitant cardiac surgery,1–5 it has not been widely performed. Recently, there has been great interest in treating AF surgically, which is attributable to increased understanding of its pathogenesis and development of new ablation technologies. In most patients, triggers and substrates for AF are located in the left atrium and pulmonary veins,12 and therefore ablation is now focused on these areas. Alternative energy sources enable rapid creation of lines of conduction block without the laborious cutting and sewing of the Cox maze III procedure. Reported ablation success ranges from 60% to 95% using a variety of different energy sources and lesion sets in various types of patients.6,7,10,11 However, there are few data identifying patient- and procedure-related risk factors for ablation failure, and no valid statistical technique to assess results.7
Prevalence of AF, Ablation Failure, and Risk Factors
In the current study, bipolar RF was the predominant modality used to create left atrial lesions; cryothermy was used to create lesions on the right and left atrial isthmuses in some patients. Four basic left atrial lesion sets were used. This variability in lesion sets, coupled with varying patient characteristics and types and durations of AF, facilitated identification of risk factors for return of AF and ablation failure.
Risk factors for AF prevalence and ablation failure were both patient and procedure related. Longer duration of AF, permanent AF, and larger left atrial diameter increased either the prevalence of AF, the risk of ablation failure, or both. In fact, these characteristics tended to occur together in the same patients. Others have demonstrated increased risk of ablation failure when these factors were present.18–22 These findings suggest that it is unlikely that "one size fits all" in ablating AF23; rather, a tailored approach is indicated.
Procedural risk factors were related to choice of lesion set. In patients with paroxysmal and persistent AF, all lesion sets produced equivalent results. Each lesion set included pulmonary vein isolation, suggesting that drivers of AF in these patients might reside in the pulmonary veins. In contrast, choice of lesion set affected results in patients with permanent AF. Those who received lesion sets 2, 3, and 4 tended to have mitral valve disease and left atrial enlargement (see Electronic Appendix 4 available at www.mosby.com/jtcvs). Lesion set 2, which does not include a lesion to the mitral annulus, produced inferior results in these patients compared with lesion sets 3 and 4. It has been suggested that failure to ablate the left atrial isthmus jeopardizes success.24,25 Our results support this concept in patients with mitral valve disease. As in previous reports, addition of right atrial lesions (eg, isthmus lesions) did not affect results.26
Others have reported that lesion set affects results. Gaynor and colleagues27 found that the Cox maze III procedure was more effective than the Cox maze I and II. Data from catheter-based procedures in patients with paroxysmal AF suggest that the more left atrial area isolated, the better the freedom from AF.28–30
Limitations
This series contains early follow-up of a large cohort of patients undergoing intraoperative RF ablation with or without cryothermy. ECGs used for analysis were obtained routinely in the hospital but opportunistically after hospital discharge. Although only 195 patients had ECGs beyond 6 months after operation, there are a sufficient number for analysis. Patients having late ECGs might be selected because they had symptomatic AF, leading to overestimation of the prevalence of AF and ablation failure. Alternatively, asymptomatic AF episodes without ECG verification might have been missed, leading to underestimation of events.31 Although periodic Holter monitoring and event recorders would have provided more data for analysis, these methodologies might still fail to capture all AF episodes. Limitations in the ability to document heart rhythm continuously over time led us to develop novel statistical methods that we believe provide accurate estimates of AF prevalence. Although not perfect, this method represents an important improvement over analyses relying on rhythm at last follow-up or patient self-reporting.
Results of AF ablation were assessed and presented in 2 related but different fashions. We estimated the prevalence of AF to depict the predicted prevalence of AF in the population at any given time after ablation. In such a depiction, a given patient might have AF on one ECG and sinus rhythm on the next, unlike in a time-to-event analysis. We also estimated freedom from ablation failure, with ablation failure defined as any recurrence of AF beyond 6 months after operation. Although this definition is stringent, it is appropriate.
The analyses of prevalence of AF and ablation failure do not take into account antiarrhythmic medications that patients might have been taking. The prevalence of antiarrhythmic medication use is depicted separately. Although we recommend discontinuing antiarrhythmic agents 3 months after ablation, continued use is at the discretion of referring cardiologists, which hampered our ability to report the prevalence of AF and freedom from ablation failure off medications.
We did not assess lesion integrity using pacing or other methods; it is therefore possible that operator error or other factors might have resulted in some patients receiving incomplete lesions, which might have contributed to ablation failures.
Clinical Inferences
AF is common early but is transient after intraoperative ablation. Early operation after the development of AF and left atrial size reduction in those with enlarged left atria might improve results. In patients with paroxysmal and persistent AF, simple pulmonary vein isolation might be adequate. In patients with permanent AF, we recommend the left atrial lesion set of the Cox maze III procedure. A prospective randomized clinical trial with longer follow-up is necessary to test these strategies.
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Discussion |
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TopAbstractMaterials and MethodsResultsDiscussionDiscussionElectronic Appendix 1Electronic Appendix 2Electronic Appendix 3Electronic Appendix 4Electronic Appendix 5Electronic Appendix 6References |
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The title of the article implies that bipolar RF energy was the energy used to create left atrial ablation lesions, but the data show that patients having lesion patterns 3 and 4 had the left atrial isthmus lesion created by means of cryothermia and that one third of the patients had right atrial inferior isthmus ablation lesions created by means of cryothermia, presumably to prevent postoperative atrial flutter.
Data have been analyzed by using complex statistical methods in an attempt to compensate for events occurring over time and in which they used analysis of ECGs obtained nearly randomly in the postoperative period. Terms such as longitudinal binary logistic regression analysis and bootstrap bagging are used. Now Gene Blackstone has explained this to me on frequent occasions, making nearly perfect logical sense, and I accept these methods knowing Gene Blackstone is correct, although I confess I really do not understand them very well, and I am not even going to ask Marc to try to explain them to us.
Dr Gillinov. But I am ready to explain them.
Dr Doty. Well, you do not have to. We accept them. And I think the authors have done a very good job of making some sense out of some difficult data, nearly 3500 ECGs. Let me give you what my interpretation of these data is based on reading the article and hearing what is presented, which quite accurately matches the article. Except for the connecting lesion, lesion patterns 1 and 2 are the same. These are patients who had in common pulmonary vein isolation lesions, and they worked well with the paroxysmal or persistent types of AF, in which one would expect trigger points in the pulmonary veins to initiate the arrhythmia. Lesion pattern 2 added the connecting lesion, but this was not enough when it came to permanent forms, and it has biased the data because the patients who had lesion pattern 2 were heavily weighed with patients with mitral valve disease, whereas the patients with lesion pattern 1 were not, and therefore one would expect the data to come out that way because the substrate for patients receiving lesion pattern 2 implies a much more complex pathogenesis of the AF than trigger points in the left pulmonary veins.
Now lesion patterns 3 and 4 are also the same, having in common pulmonary vein isolation and left atrial isthmus lesions, except that lesion pattern 4 has a double connecting lesion, which, by the way, leads to a portion of the left atrial posterior wall isolated from any electrical depolarization. And this appears to be a more effective lesion pattern when the left atrium is abnormal, such as in mitral valve disease. We do not know from the data, and we have not heard anything presented, what the effect of right atrial isthmus lesions, which were done by means of cryothermia in about one third of these patients, might be, and I would say that the conclusion of the authors, proposed effect of left atrial reduction, is purely speculative because there are no data in this presentation or the article on which you can base that conclusion.
The first question is as follows: What is the added cost of using 2 energy sources for this operation? Second, what is the role of the right atrial isthmus ablation in the treatment of AF? Three, should pulmonary vein isolation lesions be restricted to patients having paroxysmal forms or perhaps persistent forms of AF? And finally, what is the currently recommended lesion pattern for permanent forms of AF?
Dr Gillinov. Thank you, Dr Doty, for all of your comments. I think the preamble to your questions hits on something that can be used as the strength of this presentation. It is incredibly heterogeneous. There were 10 surgeons handling many different types of patients with different lesion sets in different approaches. At first glance that might produce just chaos, but on the other hand, if you have enough patients and enough follow-up, it allows you to discern patterns that relate to both the sort of patients and the lesions created, and you can get the beginnings of some answers, and therefore the heterogeneity was useful.
Regarding the cost of the 2 energy sources? Well, it is higher than we would like, but we used the older reusable cryo system, so that is a sunk cost from 15 years ago. It does not cost us anything additional to use the Cooper Surgical or Frigitronics system once we have already purchased it, and therefore we are paying for only one disposable ablation unit per case. There are people who create the isthmus lesion with RF. We have not because of fear of injury to the circumflex artery, although I am not sure that has been reported.
What about the right atrial isthmus lesion? We analyzed that to determine whether its presence or absence is a risk factor for failure. In our experience the answer is that no, it has no effect, and therefore we create one now only in someone who has a history of flutter.
Should pulmonary vein isolation be restricted to patients with paroxysmal AF? Not entirely. Pulmonary vein isolation is now our lesion set of choice with excision of the appendage in the paroxysmal patient. However, in patients who are very ill and who undergo a complex operation in which we do not want to spend even the additional 10 minutes to open the atrium and create connecting lesions, we will just do the pulmonary veins, and about 40% or 50% of those might have some success. On the other hand, if a patient has permanent AF and there is no specific contraindication or difficulty to opening the atrium and making connecting lesions, then our lesion set of choice in the left atrium looks like a maze procedure.
Dr Vaughn Starnes (Los Angeles, Calif). It is not only a very heterogeneous group of surgeons but also a heterogeneous population of patients.
My question pertains to the mitral valve repair itself. Did the repair and durability of that repair affect in any way the results of your AF; that is, if you had some residual mitral regurgitation or regurgitation developed, did it affect your outcome?
Dr Gillinov. I do not know whether recurrent mitral regurgitation influences the results; it very well might. Because recurrent mitral regurgitation and return of AF are both time-related outcomes of the surgical procedure, analysis of their relationship is statistically challenging.
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Electronic Appendix 1 |
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TopAbstractMaterials and MethodsResultsDiscussionDiscussionElectronic Appendix 1Electronic Appendix 2Electronic Appendix 3Electronic Appendix 4Electronic Appendix 5Electronic Appendix 6References |
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Electronic Appendix 2 |
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TopAbstractMaterials and MethodsResultsDiscussionDiscussionElectronic Appendix 1Electronic Appendix 2Electronic Appendix 3Electronic Appendix 4Electronic Appendix 5Electronic Appendix 6References |
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Electronic Appendix 3 |
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TopAbstractMaterials and MethodsResultsDiscussionDiscussionElectronic Appendix 1Electronic Appendix 2Electronic Appendix 3Electronic Appendix 4Electronic Appendix 5Electronic Appendix 6References |
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Electronic Appendix 4 |
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TopAbstractMaterials and MethodsResultsDiscussionDiscussionElectronic Appendix 1Electronic Appendix 2Electronic Appendix 3Electronic Appendix 4Electronic Appendix 5Electronic Appendix 6References |
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Electronic Appendix 5 |
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TopAbstractMaterials and MethodsResultsDiscussionDiscussionElectronic Appendix 1Electronic Appendix 2Electronic Appendix 3Electronic Appendix 4Electronic Appendix 5Electronic Appendix 6References |
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Electronic Appendix 6 |
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TopAbstractMaterials and MethodsResultsDiscussionDiscussionElectronic Appendix 1Electronic Appendix 2Electronic Appendix 3Electronic Appendix 4Electronic Appendix 5Electronic Appendix 6References |
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Footnotes |
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References |
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TopAbstractMaterials and MethodsResultsDiscussionDiscussionElectronic Appendix 1Electronic Appendix 2Electronic Appendix 3Electronic Appendix 4Electronic Appendix 5Electronic Appendix 6References |
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