| HOME | HELP | FEEDBACK | SUBSCRIPTIONS | ARCHIVE | SEARCH | TABLE OF CONTENTS |
|
|
|
|||||||
|
|||||||||
J Thorac Cardiovasc Surg 2008;135:908-914
© 2008 The American Association for Thoracic Surgery
Surgery for Acquired Cardiovascular Disease |
a Division of Cardiac, Thoracic, Transplantation and Vascular Surgery, Hannover Medical School, Hannover, Germany
b Department of Anesthesiology, Hannover Medical School, Hannover, Germany
c Department of Biometrics, Hannover Medical School, Hannover, Germany
Received for publication June 13, 2007; revisions received July 11, 2007; accepted for publication July 30, 2007. * Address for reprints: Nawid Khaladj, MD, Division of Cardiac, Thoracic, Transplantation and Vascular Surgery, Hannover Medical School, Carl-Neuberg-Strasse 1, 30625 Hannover, Germany. (Email: Khaladj.Nawid{at}mh-hannover.de).
 |
Abstract |
|---|
 Top Abstract IntroductionMaterials and MethodsResultsDiscussionLimitationsConclusionsReferences |
|---|
Methods: Between November 1999 and March 2006, a total of 501 consecutive patients (median age 64 years, range 20–86 years, 320 male) underwent aortic arch surgery with moderate hypothermic circulatory arrest (25°C ± 2°C) and additional selective antegrade cerebral perfusion (14°C) at our institution for various indications (256 aneurysms, 153 acute and 23 chronic type A aortic dissections, 66 other). Of these, 181 were emergency operations. Statistical analysis was carried out to determine risk factors for 30-day mortality as well as for temporary and permanent neurologic dysfunction.
Results: Overall mortality was 11.6%. Permanent neurologic dysfunction occurred in 48 patients (9.6%); temporary neurologic dysfunction was detected in 67 patients (13.4%). Multivariate analysis revealed age (P = .001, odds ratio 1.08), reoperation (P = .006, odds ratio 3.58), femoral arterial cannulation (P = .004, odds ratio 2.87), and cardiopulmonary bypass duration (P < .001, odds ratio 1.009) as risk factors for mortality. Permanent neurologic dysfunction was associated with preoperative renal insufficiency (P = .029, odds ratio 2.79) and operation time (P < .001, odds ratio 1.005), whereas temporary neurologic dysfunction occurred in patients with coronary artery disease (P = .04, odds ratio 2.29), emergency surgery (P = .001, odds ratio 4.09), and increasing hypothermic circulatory arrest duration (P = .01, odds ratio 1.015).
Conclusion: Moderate hypothermic circulatory arrest in combination with cold selective antegrade cerebral perfusion is an adequate tool for neuroprotection during aortic surgery. Nevertheless, the safety of this technique is limited for patients with long intraoperative durations, advanced age, and multiple comorbidities. This technique, which avoids profound core temperatures, has become an alternative to simple deep hypothermic circulatory arrest.
|
Introduction |
|---|
|
TopAbstractIntroductionMaterials and MethodsResultsDiscussionLimitationsConclusionsReferences |
|---|
Nevertheless, neurologic complications after hypothermic circulatory arrest (HCA) for complex aortic arch procedures are still a matter for concern.4 Adjunct brain protection techniques have therefore been introduced during the last two decades.5-7 Selective antegrade cerebral perfusion (SACP) is probably the most promising tool for reducing morbidity and mortality.1,2 SACP has been applied worldwide with various modifications.1,5,6,8,9
In recent studies, it has been shown that mortality and permanent neurologic dysfunction (PND) after aortic arch surgery are directly correlated with patient factors as well as the extent of operation. In contrast, it seems that the occurrence of temporary neurologic dysfunction (TND) is closely associated with the method of brain protection and the duration of HCA.1,2,10 The symptom complex of TND is associated with cognitive dysfunction and impaired quality of life.11-13 In this study, we report on more than 500 patients who underwent operation during a 7-year interval in a single center with a standardized protocol for HCA and SACP.8
|
Materials and Methods |
|---|
|
TopAbstractIntroductionMaterials and MethodsResultsDiscussionLimitationsConclusionsReferences |
|---|
Patient Characteristics
Five hundred one consecutive patients who underwent aortic arch surgery with HCA and SACP from November 1999 to March 2006 in our department were included in the study. Median age was 64 years (range 20–86 years); 320 were male. One hundred ten patients (22%) had undergone previous cardiac or aortic operations. Further demographic and preoperative data are shown in
Table 1.
|
All patients undergoing elective surgery underwent preoperative evaluation of their extracranial vessels with Doppler ultrasonography to exclude carotid artery stenosis or severe calcification and plaques, as well as pulmonary function tests for detection of chronic obstructive pulmonary disease (forced expiratory volume in 1 second <70%). Coronary angiography and echocardiography were also routinely performed: a restricted ejection fraction was defined as 35% or less. Glomerular filtration rate was estimated with the Cockraft–Gault equation; impaired renal function was defined as less than 60 mL/min.
Anesthesia Management
Routine monitoring included 5-lead electrocardiography, a triple-lumen central venous catheter and 8.5F sheath in the internal jugular vein, a thermodilution catheter in select cases (eg, patients with severe pulmonary hypertension or impaired ejection fraction), invasive pressure monitoring in both radial arteries as well as the right femoral artery, pulse oximetry, blood gas values, and esophageal and bladder temperatures. Bilateral cerebral oxygen saturation was measured by noninvasive spectroscopy (INVOS; Somanetics Corporation, Troy, Mich).
All patients received standard anesthesia for induction. For maintenance, all patients received sevoflurane at an end-tidal concentration of 0.5% to 2% and fentanyl. Thiopental (5 mg[kg · h]) was infused continuously, with an addition bolus of 500 mg before HCA. A 2-mL/kg dose of mannitol (20%) and a 1000-mg bolus of methylprednisolone were also given. To achieve topical cooling, the head was packed in ice before HCA. Another dose of mannitol was given during reperfusion.
Cardiopulmonary Bypass Management
Alpha stat principles were used for arterial blood gas management. Hematocrit was maintained between 21% and 25% by hemodilution or administration of red blood cells. To minimize blood loss, 2 million IU of the kallikrein inhibitor aprotinin was given after HCA during reperfusion to avoid potential side effects of hypothermia. Duration of cooling was at least 30 minutes to ensure that it was uniform and thorough.
A separate single roller pump was used for blood cardioplegia (6°C–8°C) and SACP, with continuous measurement of flow rates and pressures. The perfusion temperature was adjusted to about 14°C; perfusion pressure was 40 to 60 mm Hg, which usually corresponds to flow rates of 400 to 650 mL/min. Potential vagaries of blood pressure were treated with papaverine or calcium antagonists in the brain perfusion. During rewarming, care was taken to avoid hyperthermia and high gradients between blood perfusion temperature and core temperature, according to the suggestions of Ergin and Griepp.14
Surgical Technique
The proximal aorta and the aortic arch were approached through a median sternotomy. After systemic heparinization, the ascending aorta was cannulated in most cases. Alternatively, the left femoral artery was used (eg, in reoperative cases), according to the surgeon's preference. In most cases, venous return was established with a two-stage cannula placed in the right atrium. CBP was initiated, and the patient was cooled to the target temperature. A vent was placed in the left heart through the right superior pulmonary vein. Myocardial protection was achieved by administration of cold blood cardioplegia (6°C–8°C) with a separate roller pump, which was later used for SACP. After the anticipated HCA temperature was reached, cardiopulmonary bypass (CPB) was stopped, the aorta was opened, and the arterial cannula was removed. After exploration of the aortic arch, the patient was placed in Trendelenburg position, and two 15F retrograde cardioplegic catheters (RCSP MR 20; Medtronic, Inc, Minneapolis, Minn) were introduced under visual control into the innominate and left carotid arteries. After meticulous deairing, perfusion was started with a flow rate of 10 mL/(kg · min) and adjusted to maintain the pressure at the tip of the cannula between 40 and 60 mm Hg. In addition, the right radial artery pressure was continuously monitored. In cases of back flow, the left subclavian artery was occluded with a Fogarty catheter to avoid a steal phenomenon and achieve a bloodless surgical field. The arch was repaired according to the pathology and the surgeon's preference.
CPB was reestablished for rewarming in an antegrade fashion after the arch repair by direct cannulation of the graft and meticulous deairing of the supra-aortic vessels. During cooling and rewarming, other surgical procedures were performed, as determined by the concomitant pathology, to avoid extended CPB times.
Postoperative Management
After hemodynamic stabilization and achievement of minimal chest tube bleeding in the intensive care unit, no additional anesthetic drugs were given to allow evaluation of the gross neurologic status. Otherwise sedation was continued until hemodynamic stabilization and reduction of the fraction of inspired oxygen to 0.4.
Neurologic Evaluation
Analysis was focused on discriminating between PMD (frank strokes) and TND. Patients were considered to have PMD if they exhibited the onset of focal deficits postoperatively or were found to have a focal lesion confirmed by means of computed tomographic scanning or magnetic resonance imaging of the brain.
TND was defined according to Ergin and coworkers12 as a symptom complex of postoperative confusion, agitation, delirium, prolonged obtundation, or transient parkinsonism with negative results on imaging of the brain. Patients with PND were excluded from analysis for TND. Patients with TND or PND were included in the statistical analysis even if they later died.
Statistical Analysis
Results are expressed as mean ± SD, median and range, or percentage, as appropriate. Statistical analysis was performed with the Student t test or Pearson 
2 test for categoric variables. Forward stepwise logistic regression was used to discriminate risk factors for 30-day mortality, PND, and TND. The Kaplan–Meier survival estimate was used to analyze survival. Statistical differences in Kaplan–Meier survival estimates were determined with the log-rank test. Statistical analysis was performed using SPSS 14.0 software (SPSS Inc, Chicago, Ill) in cooperation with the Institute of Biometrics of Hannover Medical School.
|
Results |
|---|
|
TopAbstractIntroductionMaterials and MethodsResultsDiscussionLimitationsConclusionsReferences |
|---|
Table 2). Aortic valve surgery was performed in 67% cases: of these, 38% had reconstruction (eg, David I procedure).
|
Adverse Outcome
Overall 30-day mortality was 11.6% (58 patients). PND occurred in 48 patients (9.6%), and TND was detected in 67 patients (13.4%). Twelve patients with PND (25%) died, compared with 5 patients with TND (7%;
Figure 1). The overall incidence of severe adverse outcome (permanent stroke or death) was therefore 18.6%. The 30-day mortality was highly affected by preoperative urgency status: 92.2% versus 81.8% survival for nonemergency versus emergency (log-rank test P < .001).
|
2 test and stepwise logistic regression were performed to identify independent risk factors for adverse outcome (30-day mortality, PND, TND). Of all tested factors, only age in addition to HCA and SACP times had a significant impact on each analyzed adverse event. TND was affected only by prolonged HCA and SACP, indicating its value as a marker for imperfect cerebral protection (
Table 3).
|
Figure 2). The differences were statistically significant for all groups. For patients with PND, mean SACP time was 29 ± 21 minutes, compared with 22 ± 17 minutes for those without stroke (P = .015). Patients with TND had a mean HCA time of 27 ± 18 minutes, compared with 22 ± 18 minutes for those without neurologic disorders (P = .038).
|
Table 4).
|
|
Discussion |
|---|
|
TopAbstractIntroductionMaterials and MethodsResultsDiscussionLimitationsConclusionsReferences |
|---|
McCullough and coworkers15 calculated a theoretic safe duration of HCA as long as 45 minutes at 10°C as the result of temperature-induced reductions in cerebral metabolism. Unfortunately, however, symptoms of TND occurred after 25 minutes, implying that HCA alone is not safe if extended times are necessary.12
From clinical as well as experimental data, it seems that providing antegrade flow to the brain is the most physiologically compatible way of providing cerebral protection.2,16-18 But the optimal temperature and the specific distribution regimen for antegrade cerebral perfusion are still a matter of concern and have been studied recently in animal models.19,20
The rationale of providing cold blood to the brain is to combine the advantages of deep temperatures for the cerebrum with moderate temperatures for the rest of the body, with the Bachet technique,5 to avoid extended CPB times for prolonged rewarming. Harrington and coworkers21 showed in a clinical study that SACP may attenuate the cerebral metabolic deficits seen after HCA and concluded that concerns stemming from the increasing embolic load appear to be unsubstantiated.
To avoid deep HCA, which is associated with extended CBP times, we started to perform aortic arch surgery under moderate HCA with the aid of cold SACP in 1999, according to a standardized protocol published in 2003.8 In this context, we recently showed with propensity score analysis that higher body temperatures had no adverse effects on mortality and morbidity. Furthermore, deeper temperatures were a risk factor for reexploration because of bleeding.22
It is well known that a significant portion of atheromas are located in the descending aorta. For this reason, we tried to avoid cannulation of the femoral artery if possible. Direct cannulation of the ascending aorta or aortic arch is our standard approach for arterial CPB access, even in patients with acute aortic dissection type A.23 The cannulation of the axillary or subclavian artery is another elegant option, especially when SACP is applied.3 Cannulation of the carotid artery has recently been introduced by Urbanski and coworkers.24
We are comfortable with our technique of introducing perfusion catheters through the opened aortic arch in the innominate and left carotid artery under visual control. This technique is safe and easy to apply and is not associated with an additional microembolic load to the brain.25 With this approach, both hemispheres of the brain are safely perfused, directly controlled by pressure and flow rates, and indirectly monitored by near-infrared spectroscopy. This issue is of special importance because Merkkola and coworkers26 showed in a recent anatomic study that as many as 17% of patients are likely to have inadequate perfusion of the left hemisphere with purely right-sided inflow because of an incomplete circle of Willis.
The overall mortality rate of 11.6% in this study is comparable to the results of others, but the stroke rate of 9.6% is a matter for concern. In the literature, the incidence of stroke ranges between 4% and 6%.1-3 It is not clear in all the studies whether strokes were counted if the patient died during the initial hospital stay. This is important information, because our study showed a significant higher mortality rate among patients with PND than among the entire cohort, or even among patients with TND. It should be noted that this study includes a high proportion of patients who were operated on in emergency situations. Moreover, it is our policy to accept all patients for surgery, even if they require preoperative assisted ventilation or inotropic support, and even when their neurologic status is unknown. Previous studies have shown that stroke is strongly associated with patient- and disease-related factors as well as with duration of operation.1,2 In accord with these studies, our statistical analysis revealed age and a history of previous neurologic event, as well as operative times, as significant risk factors for stroke.
Years ago, symptoms of TND were considered harmless, because they resolved before discharge and computed tomographic or magnetic resonance imaging scans of the brain revealed no abnormalities. But Ergin and coworkers12 showed that TND correlates significantly with poor performance on neuropsychologic tests at 1 postoperative week and is predictive of continued deficits in memory and motor function 6 weeks after surgery. Immer and coworkers13 showed a reduction of TND with the use of SACP during HCA. Patients treated with SACP had a higher quality of life during follow-up than did those with other methods of cerebral protection.
The detection of TND is controversial, however, with no standard test battery. The incidence of TND therefore ranges from 0% to 33%, mostly associated with long durations of HCA and additional brain protection techniques.2,12,27 In a recent study, Bucerius and associates28 reviewed a large cohort of patients undergoing cardiac surgery in which the incidence of delirium, a symptom that is often seen after operations with CPB, was 8.4%. In this patient cohort, a history of cerebrovascular disease, peripheral vascular disease, atrial fibrillation, diabetes mellitus, left ventricular ejection fraction 30% or lower, preoperative cardiogenic shock, urgent operation, intraoperative hemofiltration, an operative time of at least 3 hours, and a high perioperative transfusion requirement were significantly associated with delirium. Protective against delirium were beating-heart surgery and younger patient age. With increasing expertise in managing thoracic aortic diseases, we have started to perform additional procedures more frequently, resulting in increased CBP times,29,30 which may contribute more than the cerebral protection protocol to an increased incidence of what appears to be TND.
|
Limitations |
|---|
|
TopAbstractIntroductionMaterials and MethodsResultsDiscussionLimitationsConclusionsReferences |
|---|
|
Conclusions |
|---|
|
TopAbstractIntroductionMaterials and MethodsResultsDiscussionLimitationsConclusionsReferences |
|---|
|
Acknowledgments |
|---|
|
Footnotes |
|---|
|
References |
|---|
|
TopAbstractIntroductionMaterials and MethodsResultsDiscussionLimitationsConclusionsReferences |
|---|
This article has been cited by other articles:
|
|
 |
|
  D. Pacini, L. Di Marco, A. Leone, R. Di Bartolomeo, G. Sodeck, L. Englberger, T. Carrel, and M. Czerny Antegrade selective cerebral perfusion and moderate hypothermia in aortic arch surgery: clinical outcomes in elderly patients Eur J Cardiothorac Surg, January 18, 2012; (2012) ezr304v1. [Abstract] [Full Text] [PDF]
|
|
|
|
|
|
J. Bachet 'If you want to kill your dog, accuse him of having rabies.' (French proverb) Eur J Cardiothorac Surg, January 1, 2012; 41(1): 183 - 184. [Full Text] [PDF]
|
|
|
|
|
|
P. P. Urbanski, A. Lenos, P. Bougioukakis, I. Neophytou, M. Zacher, and A. Diegeler Mild-to-moderate hypothermia in aortic arch surgery using circulatory arrest: a change of paradigm? Eur J Cardiothorac Surg, January 1, 2012; 41(1): 185 - 191. [Abstract] [Full Text] [PDF]
|
|
|
|
|
|
N. Khaladj, S. Peterss, M. Pichlmaier, M. Shrestha, R. von Wasielewski, L. Hoy, A. Haverich, and C. Hagl The impact of deep and moderate body temperatures on end-organ function during hypothermic circulatory arrest, Eur J Cardiothorac Surg, December 1, 2011; 40(6): 1492 - 1500. [Abstract] [Full Text] [PDF]
|
|
|
|
|
|
N. Uchida, A. Katayama, K. Tamura, M. Sutoh, M. Kuraoka, and H. Ishihara Frozen elephant trunk technique and partial remodeling for acute type A aortic dissection Eur J Cardiothorac Surg, November 1, 2011; 40(5): 1066 - 1071. [Abstract] [Full Text] [PDF]
|
|
|
|
 |
|
 G. Watanabe, H. Ohtake, S. Tomita, S. Yamaguchi, K. Kimura, and N. Yashiki Tepid hypothermic (32 {degrees}C) circulatory arrest for total aortic arch replacement: a paradigm shift from profound hypothermic surgery Interact CardioVasc Thorac Surg, June 1, 2011; 12(6): 952 - 955. [Abstract] [Full Text] [PDF]
|
|
|
|
 |
|
 M. Takata, G. Watanabe, H. Ohtake, T. Ushijima, S. Yamaguchi, Y. Kikuchi, and Y. Yamamoto Automatic aortic anastomosis with an innovative computer-controlled circular stapler for surgical treatment of aortic aneurysm J. Thorac. Cardiovasc. Surg., May 1, 2011; 141(5): 1265 - 1269. [Abstract] [Full Text] [PDF]
|
|
|
|
 |
|
 O. Jonsson, A. Morell, V. Zemgulis, E. Lundstrom, T. Tovedal, G. M. Einarsson, S. Thelin, H. Ahlstrom, A. Bjornerud, and F. Lennmyr Minimal Safe Arterial Blood Flow During Selective Antegrade Cerebral Perfusion at 20{degrees} Centigrade Ann. Thorac. Surg., April 1, 2011; 91(4): 1198 - 1205. [Abstract] [Full Text] [PDF]
|
|
|
|
|
|
S. Al-Ali, B. S. Chen, A. T. Papali'i-Curtin, A. R. Timmings, C. Bergin, P. Raudkivi, and J. Cooper Adequacy of brain and spinal blood supply with antegrade cerebral perfusion in a rat model. J. Thorac. Cardiovasc. Surg., April 1, 2011; 141(4): 1070 - 1076. [Abstract] [Full Text] [PDF]
|
|
|
|
 |
|
 S. Conolly, J. E. Arrowsmith, and A. A. Klein Deep hypothermic circulatory arrest CEACCP, October 1, 2010; 10(5): 138 - 142. [Full Text] [PDF]
|
|
|
|
|
|
B. G. Leshnower, R. J. Myung, P. D. Kilgo, T. A. Vassiliades, J. D. Vega, V. H. Thourani, J. D. Puskas, R. A. Guyton, and E. P. Chen Moderate Hypothermia and Unilateral Selective Antegrade Cerebral Perfusion: A Contemporary Cerebral Protection Strategy for Aortic Arch Surgery Ann. Thorac. Surg., August 1, 2010; 90(2): 547 - 554. [Abstract] [Full Text] [PDF]
|
|
|
|
|
|
R. K. Milewski, D. Pacini, G. W. Moser, P. Moeller, D. Cowie, W. Y. Szeto, Y. J. Woo, N. Desai, L. Di Marco, A. Pochettino, et al. Retrograde and Antegrade Cerebral Perfusion: Results in Short Elective Arch Reconstructive Times Ann. Thorac. Surg., May 1, 2010; 89(5): 1448 - 1457. [Abstract] [Full Text] [PDF]
|
|
|
|
|
|
N. Khaladj, S. Peterss, A. Haverich, and C. Hagl eComment: Outcome in patients requiring surgery for acute aortic dissection type A: just a matter of cannulation site? Interact CardioVasc Thorac Surg, May 1, 2010; 10(5): 802 - 802. [Full Text] [PDF]
|
|
|
|
|
|
M. E. Halkos, F. Kerendi, R. Myung, P. Kilgo, J. D. Puskas, and E. P. Chen Selective antegrade cerebral perfusion via right axillary artery cannulation reduces morbidity and mortality after proximal aortic surgery J. Thorac. Cardiovasc. Surg., November 1, 2009; 138(5): 1081 - 1089. [Abstract] [Full Text] [PDF]
|
|
|
|
 |
|
 M. Toyama, Y. Matsumura, A. Tamenishi, and H. Okamoto Safety of Mild Hypothermic Circulatory Arrest with Selective Cerebral Perfusion Asian Cardiovasc Thorac Ann, October 1, 2009; 17(5): 500 - 504. [Abstract] [Full Text] [PDF]
|
|
|
|
|
|
N. Khaladj, I. Ismail, M. Shrestha, S. Peterss, M. Pichlmaier, K. Kallenbach, A. Haverich, and C. Hagl Aortic root surgery in combination with hypothermic circulatory arrest: preserve or replace the aortic valve in the context of postoperative neurological outcome? A case match comparison Interact CardioVasc Thorac Surg, August 1, 2009; 9(2): 246 - 250. [Abstract] [Full Text] [PDF]
|
|
|
|
|
|
N. Khaladj, S. Peterss, A. Haverich, and C. Hagl Selective antegrade three-vessel cerebral perfusion: a technique to protect the brain and the lower body? Eur J Cardiothorac Surg, August 1, 2009; 36(2): 425 - 426. [Full Text] [PDF]
|
|
|
|
|
|
N. Khaladj, M. Shrestha, A. Haverich, and C. Hagl Reply to Abunasra et al. The exciting question of cannulation site in acute aortic dissection type A Eur J Cardiothorac Surg, July 1, 2009; 36(1): 228 - 228. [Full Text] [PDF]
|
|
|
|
|
|
O. Jonsson, G. Myrdal, V. Zemgulis, J. Valtysson, L. Hillered, and S. Thelin Selective antegrade cerebral perfusion at two different temperatures compared to hypothermic circulatory arrest - an experimental study in the pig with microdialysis Interact CardioVasc Thorac Surg, June 1, 2009; 8(6): 647 - 653. [Abstract] [Full Text] [PDF]
|
|
|
|
|
|
J. G.T. Augoustides Optimizing selective cerebral perfusion in adult aortic arch repair: clinical relevance of the laboratory model. J. Thorac. Cardiovasc. Surg., October 1, 2008; 136(4): 1105 - 1106. [Full Text] [PDF]
|
|
|
|
|
|
P. G. Malvindi, G. Scrascia, and N. Vitale Is unilateral antegrade cerebral perfusion equivalent to bilateral cerebral perfusion for patients undergoing aortic arch surgery? Interact CardioVasc Thorac Surg, October 1, 2008; 7(5): 891 - 897. [Abstract] [Full Text] [PDF]
|
|
| ||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||
| HOME | HELP | FEEDBACK | SUBSCRIPTIONS | ARCHIVE | SEARCH | TABLE OF CONTENTS |
| ANN THORAC SURG | ASIAN CARDIOVASC THORAC ANN | EUR J CARDIOTHORAC SURG |
| J THORAC CARDIOVASC SURG | ICVTS | ALL CTSNet JOURNALS |
