| HOME | HELP | FEEDBACK | SUBSCRIPTIONS | ARCHIVE | SEARCH | TABLE OF CONTENTS |
|
|
|
|||||||
|
|||||||||
J Thorac Cardiovasc Surg 2008;136:726-734
© 2008 The American Association for Thoracic Surgery
Evolving Technology |
a Harrison Department of Surgical Research, University of Pennsylvania School of Medicine, Philadelphia, Pa
b Department of Medicine, University of Pennsylvania School of Medicine, Philadelphia, Pa
Received for publication October 25, 2007; revisions received December 20, 2007; accepted for publication February 3, 2008. * Address for reprints: Joseph H. Gorman, III, MD, Department of Surgery, University of Pennsylvania, Glenolden Research Laboratory, 500 S Ridgeway Ave, 2nd Floor, Room 249, Glenolden, PA 19036. (Email: gormanj{at}uphs.upenn.edu).
 |
Abstract |
|---|
 Top Abstract IntroductionMaterials and MethodsResultsDiscussionReferences |
|---|
Methods: Ten healthy adult subjects underwent mitral valve imaging with real-time 3-dimensional echocardiography. By using specially designed image analysis software, multiple valvular geometric parameters, including 2- and 3-dimensional leaflet curvature, leaflet surface area, annular height, intercommissural width, septolateral annular diameter, and annular area were determined for each subject. Image-rendering techniques that allow for the clear and concise presentation of this detailed information are also presented.
Results: Although 3-dimensional annular and leaflet geometry were found to be highly conserved between healthy human subjects in general, substantial intrasubject and intersubject regional geometric heterogeneity was observed in the midposterior leaflet, the region most commonly involved in leaflet flail in subjects with myxomatous disease.
Conclusions: The image-processing and graphic-rendering techniques that we have developed can be used to provide a complete description of 3-dimensional mitral valve geometry in human subjects. Widespread application of these techniques to healthy subjects and patients with mitral valve disease will provide insight into the geometric basis of both valvular pathology and repair durability.
|
Introduction |
|---|
|
TopAbstractIntroductionMaterials and MethodsResultsDiscussionReferences |
|---|
Even more concerning are the recent reports of an unexpectedly high incidence of recurrent moderate MR after mitral valve repair. Four recent studies from experienced centers indicate that the recurrence of 2+ or greater MR is between 2% and 4% per year.5-8 Considering patients with even mild residual/recurrent MR after valve repair have decreased exercise tolerance and longevity compared with patients with competent repairs,9 there is a need to improve current repair techniques. This is particularly relevant because an increasing number of asymptomatic patients are being referred for valve repair.10-12
A significant number of repair failures result from chordal, leaflet, and suture-line disruption, which suggests that mechanical leaflet stress plays a significant role in this process.13 It is recognized that leaflet curvature is an important determinant of valve stress.14 As such, repair devices and techniques that maximize leaflet curvature might reduce valvular stress and increase repair durability. To prove this concept, it is necessary to develop clinically applicable quantitative imaging techniques that allow both the assessment of normal leaflet geometry and the effect of repair techniques on leaflet geometry. Only through a more thorough understanding of normal 3-dimensional mitral valve geometry can reconstructive strategies realistically be directed toward restoration of this geometry.
Real-time 3-dimensional echocardiography, which is noninvasive, relatively inexpensive, and widely available, is uniquely applicable to this task because it allows for both high-resolution 3-dimensional rendering of the mitral valve15 and the calculation of multiple geometric parameters, including spatially resolved 3-dimensional Gaussian curvature on the leaflet surfaces.
In this study we describe several novel echocardiographically based techniques for quantifying mitral valve geometry and apply these techniques to the characterization of normal human mitral valve geometry. Additionally, we introduce the concept of regional curvature heterogeneity, which has previously been proposed as a marker of complex stress distribution patterns,16 to the quantitative description of the mitral valve.
|
Materials and Methods |
|---|
|
TopAbstractIntroductionMaterials and MethodsResultsDiscussionReferences |
|---|
Image Analysis
Cardio-View allows for the interactive manipulation, including rotation, translation, surface rendering, and measurement, of fully 3-dimensional ultrasonographic data sets (4-dimensional data). All analysis was performed at midsystole to minimize load variability. The plane of the mitral valve orifice was rotated into a short-axis view. The geometric center was then translated to the intersection of the 2 corresponding long-axis planes, which then corresponded to the intercommissural and septolateral axes of the mitral valve orifice. A rotational template consisting of 18 long-axis cross-sectional planes separated by 10° increments was superimposed on the 3-dimensional echocardiogram (Figure 1, A). The 2 annular points intersecting each of the 18 long-axis rotational planes were then identified by means of orthogonal visualization of each plane; the 2 points were marked interactively (Figure 1, B). Measurement planes were then marked at fixed 2-mm intervals along the entire length of the intercommissural axis (Figure 1, C).
|
|
Calculation of Leaflet Surface Area and Leaflet Curvature
Each point along the annulus was merged with the leaflet data set, and the coaptation points were added to enforce leaflet coaptation. The center of gravity of each mitral valve data set was translated to the origin. The least-squares plane of the 3-dimensional data set was then calculated by means of orthogonal distance regression. The data set was then rotated so that the least-squares plane of the mitral valve corresponded to the xy-plane and so that the meridianal septolateral axis corresponded to the x-axis. Under these geometric conditions, the intercommissural axis lay parallel to the y-axis.
Separate meshed grids were then created for the anterior leaflet and posterior leaflet data sets. Smoothing splines were constructed separately for anterior and posterior leaflets by using the Matlab spline TPAPS function. The smoothing parameter, which varies between 0 for a least-squares approximation and 1 for a thin-plate spline interpolant, was assigned automatically for each data set by the Matlab software. The splined z-coordinates at each mesh point of the rectangular mesh grid were calculated separately over each leaflet.
The area of each triangle described by 3 adjacent mesh points was then calculated continuously across the leaflet meshed grids. The anterior leaflet surface area (SAAL) was then defined as the sum of triangular areas across the anterior leaflet, whereas the posterior leaflet surface area (SAPL) was defined as the sum of triangular areas across the posterior leaflet. The total surface area was then defined as the sum of SAAL and SAPL. The SAAL/SAPL ratio and total leaflet surface area/annular area ratio were subsequently calculated for each subject.
The Gaussian curvature (K) 
of the spline fits was then calculated for every mesh point on both grids.
Septolateral and intercommissural 2-dimensional leaflet curvatures (KSL and KIC) were then calculated as follows. Let a, b, and c be the distances between each of 3 sequential mesh points along either the x-axis (septolateral) or y-axis (intercommissural). The 2-dimensional curvature along the selected axis at a given mesh point is then defined as follows:
|
|
Both KSL and KIC were calculated for every mesh point on both anterior and posterior leaflet grids.
Description of Regional Gaussian Curvature Heterogeneity
The standard error of the mean of K (SEMK) over a 7-point x 7-point region (0.49 mm2) was calculated and assigned to the mesh point at the center of the 7 x 7–point region to quantify leaflet geometric heterogeneity (eg, geometric variability) for a given subject. This calculation was performed continuously for overlapping regions across the entire valve surface.
Construction of Hybrid 3-Dimensional Renderings
A 3-dimensional hybrid rendering was constructed for all subjects (n = 10) to facilitate the presentation of quantitative geometric data.
The hybrid anterior and posterior leaflets were modeled independently. The individual geometric centers of each anterior and posterior leaflet mesh within a given cohort were translated to their averaged geometric centers, scaled to their averaged area in 2-dimensional (xy) space, and then overlapped. Those areas of the overlapped individual leaflet meshes in which all data sets, or all data sets except one, coincided were included in the hybrid mesh. All other points were excluded. The z-coordinate at each point along the hybrid anterior and posterior leaflet meshes was determined by using the arithmetic mean of the vertically compiled z-coordinates of the individual overlapped models. Finally, the point in 2-dimensional (xz) space at which anterior and posterior leaflet meshes intersected was defined for each mesh interval along the intercommissural (y) axis. The resultant series of coaptation points was then defined as the line of leaflet coaptation for the 3-dimensional rendering.
Four distinct shading techniques, in which interpolated color contouring at a given mesh point was determined by KSL (Figure 3 ), KIC (Figure 4 ), K (Figure 5 ), and SEMK (Figure 6 ), were then applied to each hybrid rendering to facilitate visualization of each of these geometric indexes in 3-dimensional space. In each case color intensity was determined by the mean value of the given index for the 10 vertically compiled mesh points.
|
|
|
|
|
|
Results |
|---|
|
TopAbstractIntroductionMaterials and MethodsResultsDiscussionReferences |
|---|
Annular Geometry and Leaflet Surface Area
Measurements of annular shape and leaflet surface area are presented in Table 1
as means ± standard error of the mean.
|
On inspection of Figure 3, which shows patterns of 2-dimensional septolateral curvature along the leaflets, 2 pronounced geometric features emerge. Most notably, KSL across the anterior leaflet is uniformly compound, with highly negative (apically oriented concavity) curvature immediately adjacent to the midanterior annulus, highly positive (atrially oriented concavity) curvature within the leaflet belly, and then highly negative (apically oriented concavity) curvature adjacent to the line of coaptation. Conversely, KSL across the posterior leaflet is predominantly simple, with negative (apically oriented concavity) curvature both adjacent to the posterior annulus and within the leaflet belly and a relatively flat surface (KSL between 0.0 and 0.2 cm–1) adjacent to the line of coaptation, although there are scattered foci of highly positive curvature (atrially oriented concavity) within this region.
Similarly, 2 pronounced patterns of 2-dimensional intercommissural curvature emerge on inspection of Figure 4. Most notable is the manner in which KIC alternates across the intercommissural axis of the anterior leaflet, with highly positive (atrially oriented concavity) curvature within A1, highly negative (apically oriented concavity) curvature centered on the A2 meridian, and then highly positive (atrially oriented concavity) curvature again on A3. It is interesting to note that this pattern of curvature mirrors the geometry of the anterior annular saddle horn. Although KIC also alternates across the intercommissural axis of the posterior leaflet, the spatial distribution of positive and negative curvature is reversed from that observed across the anterior leaflet: KIC is highly negative (apically oriented concavity) within P1, predominantly positive (atrially oriented concavity) within P2, and then negative (apically oriented concavity) within P3. There are also 2 distinct foci of highly positive (atrially oriented concavity) KIC within P2 separated by a relatively flat region along the P2 meridian.
Regional patterns of 3-dimensional leaflet deformation are shown in Figure 5. Although Gaussian curvature (K) was calculated by means of orthogonal gradients, an alternative definition of K is as follows: K = k1xk2, where k1 and k2 are principal (major and minor) curvatures that measure the maximum and minimum 2-dimensional curvature at a given point on a regular surface. Values of K less than 0 (either k1 or k2 is negative) indicate the presence of a hyperbolic surface, whereas values of K greater than 0 (k1 and k2 are either both positive or both negative) indicate an elliptical surface. Although K does indicate the relative orientations (signs) of the principal curvatures at a given point in space, it does not indicate the orientation of the surface within a 3-dimensional frame of reference. Although this can be readily appreciated on examination of the 3-dimensional model, it is difficult to appreciate in a 2-dimensional projection (Figure 3). However, KSL and KIC have been calculated for every mesh point as well, and although KSL and KIC do not necessarily coincide with k1 and k2, they do allow one to relate 2-dimensional and 3-dimensional curvature at any point along the rendered surface. There is a prominent hyperbolic region adjacent to the midanterior annulus that reflects the intersection of positive (atrially oriented concavity) septolateral curvature and negative (apically oriented concavity) intercommissural curvature in this region. Additionally, there are prominent elliptical regions on both sides of this central hyperbolic surface, one adjacent to the posterior commissure and one adjacent to the anterior annulus within A1, that reflect the intersection of highly positive (atrially oriented concavity) septolateral and intercommissural in this region. Although there are 2 prominent hyperbolic foci (P1 and P2) along the posterior leaflet surface, they do not appear to represent prominent 2-dimensional features, suggesting that KSL and KIC do not approximate k1 and k2 at these points on the mitral valve surface. Gaussian curvature across the remainder of the mitral valve surface exists over a relatively narrow range (–0.2 to 0.2 cm–2), indicating that although there is substantial regional variation in KSL and KIC, 3-dimensional curvature is nonetheless relatively homogeneous.
Leaflet Gaussian Curvature Heterogeneity
The regional geometric variability of K is shown in Figure 6. In this rendering color intensity reflects the standard error of the mean of K within a very small region (0.49 mm2) around a central mesh point (SEMK). Interestingly, the only foci of high heterogeneity (SEMK >0.08 cm–2) occur across the posterior leaflet (there is a single focus of heterogeneity along the posterior annulus in P1 and 2 separate foci in P2), indicating spatially dense patterns of geometric variation within these regions. There is otherwise minimal (SEMK <0.04 cm–2) intrasubject regional geometric heterogeneity.
Intersubject Regional Geometric Heterogeneity
The variability of 3-dimensional geometry between subjects is shown in Figure 7. In this rendering color intensity reflects the standard error of the mean of the vertically compiled z-coordinates of the 10-subject cohort at each overlapping mesh point (SEMZ). Again, geometric heterogeneity is most prominent across the posterior leaflet surface: there are 2 large confluent foci of high intersubject heterogeneity (SEMZ >0.5 mm) in P2 and an isolated focus in P3. There is a separate focus of high intersubject heterogeneity along the anterior annulus within A1 and A2. There are 3 additional foci of moderate (SEMZ between 0.3 and 0.5 mm) heterogeneity across the anterior leaflet, within the belly of A2, and adjacent to the line of coaptation in both A1 and A3. There is otherwise minimal intersubject regional geometric heterogeneity.
|
Discussion |
|---|
|
TopAbstractIntroductionMaterials and MethodsResultsDiscussionReferences |
|---|
Although prior finite element models have improved our understanding of mitral valve loading patterns, each assumes passive billowing of the leaflets toward the atrium during systole.17-19 These assumptions have, in most but not all cases, been drawn from observing the valve in its unloaded state during postmortem or intraoperative examination. The previously unappreciated complexity of leaflet geometry described in this study is likely due to the intricate and multifarious interplay between the mitral annulus, mitral leaflets, chordae tendinae, contracting ventricle, and pressure loading. Incorporation of these quantitative anatomic models might allow for more accurate finite element modeling of the mitral valve. Such composite analysis might both improve our understanding of valvular physiology and potentially elucidate geometric predictors of mitral valve repair efficacy and durability.
It is possible that failure to restore normal valvular geometry might contribute to the chordal, leaflet, and suture-line disruption that frequently underlies repair failure in patients with degenerative mitral valve disease.13 Therefore we believe that a more quantitative understanding of 3-dimensional leaflet shape is essential to the ongoing improvement of clinical outcomes in this patient population. The work reported here is an important first step toward this goal.
Although the mean leaflet surface area/mitral annular area ratio of 1.2 that we report is lower than previously published values, which range from 1.76 to 1.90,20,21 this is readily explained by 2 distinct phenomena. First, these prior measurements were performed postmortem and are likely overestimates caused by fixation artifacts. Second, our calculated leaflet surfaces areas do not include the surface of coaptation and, by necessity, represent underestimates. Nonetheless, the technique that we describe allows for the quantitative characterization of leaflet redundancy in fully loaded valves in vivo, excluding the surface of coaptation.
Our results confirm those of previous studies involving invasive imaging techniques that have documented compound curvature along the septolateral meridian of the anterior leaflet and hyperbolic surface geometry within the belly of the midanterior (A2) leaflet zone.22-24 Furthermore, our findings indicate that compound curvature exists across the entire anterior leaflet. Additionally, our findings confirm that septolateral curvature across the posterior is predominantly simple.22,23
Although the saddle shape of the mitral annulus has been well documented,25,26 our description of KIC demonstrates, for the first time, that the entire anterior leaflet surface mirrors this same shape. These findings support the evolving understanding that annular shape directly influences leaflet geometry and that annuloplasty ring shape might be an important factor in maintaining leaflet curvature and reducing valvular stress after surgical repair.
The results also demonstrate that although Gaussian curvature across most of the mitral valve surface is remarkably constant, there is a single focus of regional curvature heterogeneity within the P1 region and 2 large foci in P2. This spatially dense heterogeneity can also be appreciated visually in Figure 6. We found this result to be extremely interesting for several reasons.
The most common cause of MR in patients with myxomatous leaflet degeneration is a flail midposterior (P2) leaflet caused by rupture, elongation, or both of the associated chordae tendinae.27 In general, these patients have been found to have grossly normal valvular geometry but pervasively abnormal leaflet tissue.28 Load testing of diseased valvular tissue has demonstrated mechanical failure at 50% of the load tolerated by histologically normal tissue.29 Material fatigue or degeneration involves a dynamic interface between mechanical loading, material properties, and intrinsic geometry. Assuming that all mitral leaflet tissue is subjected to a similar mechanical load and that material properties are similar throughout the mitral leaflets, it follows that the predilection for P2 rupture might be determined by normal patterns of regional leaflet geometry, which tends to maximize stress in this region of the valve.
Recent computed tomography–based geometric modeling of the abdominal aorta has suggested that spatially dense curvature heterogeneity and sign inversion, both of which are prominent within the P2 leaflet region, represent regions of high stress.16 The complex geometric relationships observed within the P2 segment of the posterior leaflet might underlie the focal leaflet fatigue and chordal rupture observed in patients with myxomatous degeneration.
In the absence of more refined finite element modeling techniques, a quantitative description of posterior leaflet geometry provides useful insight into the geometric patterns that might predispose this region to rupture. Gaussian curvature and curvature heterogeneity serve as useful parameters in this regard because the former both describes patterns of regional leaflet distortion and allows for a quantitative treatment of global leaflet shape and the latter serves as a potential surrogate for focally high stress.
The primary goal of this work was to develop a clinically applicable quantitative methodology for describing systolic mitral valve geometry in vivo. The analysis of 10 healthy human subjects presented here illustrates the utility of this technique in providing mechanistic insights into previously unexplained clinical phenomena. Although the number of subjects studied is relatively small, it is quite interesting that the shape of the valve leaflets was very similar in all 10 individuals (Figure 7). The only regions that varied substantially between valves were the P2 segment and a very small portion of the anterior leaflet adjacent to the annulus near its region of continuity with the aortic root. As previously stated, the P2 region demonstrated spatially dense curvature variability; interestingly, the patterns of curvature themselves also varied between individuals. The intersubject curvature heterogeneity observed in the region adjacent to the aortic root might be the result of differences in aortomitral anatomic and physiologic coupling.30 A more complete description of both of these regions will require further study.
Echocardiographic technology has improved dramatically in recent years, particularly so with the introduction of real-time 3-dimensional echocardiography. Currently, when coupled with the appropriate postprocessing software, this imaging modality can be used to provide dynamic quantitative imaging of the mitral valve with a 3-dimensional spatial resolution and registration previously unachievable. We believe strongly that because the quantitative imaging techniques presented here evolve and are applied to increasing numbers of patients, we will be able to develop predictive modeling software that will allow surgeons both to optimize repair techniques and to develop annuloplasty ring designs based, for the first time, on quantitative data rather than surgeon intuition. Ultimately, preoperative images can be used in conjunction with such software to "test" various leaflet resection and annuloplasty options to more precisely plan surgical strategies before the patient enters the operating room.
|
Footnotes |
|---|
|
References |
|---|
|
TopAbstractIntroductionMaterials and MethodsResultsDiscussionReferences |
|---|
This article has been cited by other articles:
|
|
 |
|
  R. M. Lang, W. Tsang, L. Weinert, V. Mor-Avi, and S. Chandra Valvular Heart Disease: The Value of 3-Dimensional Echocardiography J. Am. Coll. Cardiol., November 1, 2011; 58(19): 1933 - 1944. [Abstract] [Full Text] [PDF]
|
|
|
|
 |
|
 W. Bothe, E. Kuhl, J.-P. E. Kvitting, M. K. Rausch, S. Goktepe, J. C. Swanson, S. Farahmandnia, N. B. Ingels Jr, and D. C. Miller Rigid, Complete Annuloplasty Rings Increase Anterior Mitral Leaflet Strains in the Normal Beating Ovine Heart Circulation, September 13, 2011; 124(11_suppl_1): S81 - S96. [Abstract] [Full Text] [PDF]
|
|
|
|
 |
|
 M. Vergnat, B. M. Jackson, A. T. Cheung, S. J. Weiss, S. J. Ratcliffe, M. J. Gillespie, Y. J. Woo, J. E. Bavaria, M. A. Acker, R. C. Gorman, et al. Saddle-Shape Annuloplasty Increases Mitral Leaflet Coaptation After Repair for Flail Posterior Leaflet Ann. Thorac. Surg., September 1, 2011; 92(3): 797 - 803. [Abstract] [Full Text] [PDF]
|
|
|
|
|
|
M. Vergnat, A. S. Jassar, B. M. Jackson, L. P. Ryan, T. J. Eperjesi, A. M. Pouch, S. J. Weiss, A. T. Cheung, M. A. Acker, J. H. Gorman III, et al. Ischemic Mitral Regurgitation: A Quantitative Three-Dimensional Echocardiographic Analysis Ann. Thorac. Surg., January 1, 2011; 91(1): 157 - 164. [Abstract] [Full Text] [PDF]
|
|
|
|
|
|
A. S. Jassar, C. J. Brinster, M. Vergnat, J. D. Robb, T. J. Eperjesi, A. M. Pouch, A. T. Cheung, S. J. Weiss, M. A. Acker, J. H. Gorman III, et al. Quantitative Mitral Valve Modeling Using Real-Time Three-Dimensional Echocardiography: Technique and Repeatability Ann. Thorac. Surg., January 1, 2011; 91(1): 165 - 171. [Abstract] [Full Text] [PDF]
|
|
|
|
 |
|
 H. Jensen, M. O. Jensen, M. H. Smerup, S. Ringgaard, T. S. Sorensen, N. T. Andersen, P. Wierup, J. M. Hasenkam, and S. L. Nielsen Three-dimensional assessment of papillary muscle displacement in a porcine model of ischemic mitral regurgitation J. Thorac. Cardiovasc. Surg., December 1, 2010; 140(6): 1312 - 1318. [Abstract] [Full Text] [PDF]
|
|
|
|
 |
|
 C. Xu, C. J. Brinster, A. S. Jassar, M. Vergnat, T. J. Eperjesi, R. C. Gorman, J. H. Gorman 3rd, and B. M. Jackson A novel approach to in vivo mitral valve stress analysis Am J Physiol Heart Circ Physiol, December 1, 2010; 299(6): H1790 - H1794. [Abstract] [Full Text] [PDF]
|
|
|
|
|
|
J.-P. E. Kvitting, W. Bothe, S. Goktepe, M. K. Rausch, J. C. Swanson, E. Kuhl, N. B. Ingels Jr, and D. C. Miller Anterior Mitral Leaflet Curvature During the Cardiac Cycle in the Normal Ovine Heart Circulation, October 26, 2010; 122(17): 1683 - 1689. [Abstract] [Full Text] [PDF]
|
|
|
|
|
|
R. M. Suri, J. Grewal, S. Mankad, M. Enriquez-Sarano, F. A. Miller Jr, and H. V. Schaff Is the Anterior Intertrigonal Distance Increased in Patients With Mitral Regurgitation Due to Leaflet Prolapse? Ann. Thorac. Surg., October 1, 2009; 88(4): 1202 - 1208. [Abstract] [Full Text] [PDF]
|
|
| ||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||
| HOME | HELP | FEEDBACK | SUBSCRIPTIONS | ARCHIVE | SEARCH | TABLE OF CONTENTS |
| ANN THORAC SURG | ASIAN CARDIOVASC THORAC ANN | EUR J CARDIOTHORAC SURG |
| J THORAC CARDIOVASC SURG | ICVTS | ALL CTSNet JOURNALS |
